Abstract
This article examines the role of iconography in African Christian liturgy with a particular focus on Serima Mission in the now Catholic Diocese of Gweru in Central Zimbabwe. Of all Catholic missions in Zimbabwe, Serima Mission is perhaps the most popular in iconography with innumerable sets of wood and stone carvings portraying mostly religious scenes based on African designs and patterns. The atmosphere at Serima Mission, particularly the church interior, presents an expression of the power of African art, visual language, summation of the Catholic faith, and the otherness and transcendental nature of the omniscient, omnipotent, and omnibenevolent Christian God. This article firstly presents the history and impact of Serima African School of iconography under the tutelage of Fr John Groeber. Furthermore, it explores the role of iconography in African Christian liturgy on the Roman Catholic Church. The article critically examines iconography in African religion and spirituality, Sacred Scripture and celebrated traditional Christian practices. This article argues that, whilst religious symbols are on the physical realm, in reality, they symbolise and represent the metaphysical and transcendental realities. Although, they are often associated with religious formalism, exaggerated spirituality, and idol worship, icons and images have conveyed unprecedented allegorical messages across time and cultures.
Contribution: This article expands the studies of iconography and semiology in theological landscapes and texts, allowing for the recognition and repositioning of art interpretation from an African experience.
Keywords: iconography; Serima Mission; Zimbabwe; African liturgy; metaphysical realities; semiotics; African semiology; symbolism.
Introduction
Religious symbolism is essential to all religions of the world and is perhaps as old as religion itself. For centuries, religious symbols, art, and images have been used to convey concepts pertaining to humanity’s relationship with the hierophany and the ‘awe-inspiring Ganz Andere’ (Eliade 1957:9) or ‘that which people (the I-We) appropriately respond to as being of unrestricted value for them’ (Cox 1992:15). Thus, from the oldest to the youngest religion of the world, natural or revealed, the visibility of iconic representation cannot be overstated. Whilst, on the one hand, such iconic representations are tailor-made to represent a specific religion, like in the case of Judaism (Chai symbol with the Star of David), Buddhism (Dharma Wheel), Christianity (Cross), and Islam (Crescent and Star), on the other hand, countless sets of murals represent a specific concept or concepts, doctrines and moral lessons peculiar to each particular religion. In Christian (particularly Catholic) settings, iconic representations of concepts such as the Nativity, Last Supper, Passion of Christ, Resurrection, Ascension, Pentecost, and saints, among many others have not been lacking for centuries. Because in the ordinary course of life devotees do not come into direct contact with the divinity, symbols, gestures, visible objects, signs, and words have always symbolised and represented the metaphysical and transcendental realities (Sarpong 1985:4). These are regarded as a mode of communicating with the unseen supernatural.
These icons represent the tangible, and concrete experience often used to contemplate the existence of the figurative and abstract reality. For decades, African Christian liturgy has been occupied by religious symbols and symbolism that demonstrated and continue to demonstrate real originality in decorating their churches without imitating western art and aesthetics. This has amplified and demonstrated the African whirlwind energy and drive for inculturation1 in their attempt to make the gospel message truly African. Evidently, as observed by Baur (2009), after 2000 years of Christianity in Africa, the dynamics and dialectics of African Christianity today exhibit a Christianity that is visibly alive and healthy. Large numbers come together for liturgy, where men and women serve in a number of denominational and interdenominational ministries that build up both church and community, deriving inspiration from local leadership, hymns, drums, vernacular Bibles as well as admirable paintings and sculptures. With reference to Zimbabwe’s long road to political freedom, McLaughlin (1996:13) posits that as early as the pre-independence era, inculturation attempts were visible – Shona hymns were composed with Shona melodies,2 local musical instruments (mbira, drums), and African Art and architecture were used in the construction of new churches such as one at Serima Mission.
Ever since the establishment of Serima Mission in the mid-50s by Father John Groeber, several scholars have popularised the craft of Serima African School of iconography (Morton 2012; Plangger & Diethelm 1977:1; Saint Mary’s Mission 1962:7; Zhou 2017:54) to mention just but a few. To examine the role of iconography in African Christian liturgy, particularly at Serima Mission, both primary and secondary sources have been used. Alongside critical and valuable information on Serima Mission available in books and online, one of the authors carried out interviews at Serima Mission from the month of April to August 2018. Whilst most interviews were directed at Serima Mission parishioners, some questions, however, targeted non-Catholics from the neighbourhood who seemed to hold an unfavourable view with regard to the role of religious symbols and symbolism. Whilst the article demands that we examine the role of iconography in African Christian liturgy with particular focus on Serima Mission in the Catholic Diocese of Gweru in Central Zimbabwe, it is critical and academically creditable to begin by tracing the life and professional background of the towering figure of Fr John Groeber, the founder, and Father of Serima African School of iconography and to ground iconography within a theoretical framework that will assist us in our interpretation.
Iconography and the paradox of semiology
The arguments raised in this article can best be understood within the theories of semiotics. Semiology or semiotics is not a single unified theory; however, it concerns itself with the use of signs and images to convey meaning. Several theorists, especially structuralist linguists such as Pierce, Saussure, and Umberto Eco have defined the scope and the use of signs to arrive at meaning. Most, argue that the relationship between the sign and the signified is arbitrary but contextual. It is the context that determines how we assign meaning. This contention is best explained in Jacques Derrida’s concept of difference which explains that the meaning in a sign is continually delayed in the act of interpretation. This delay translated loosely into English, relates to a change of meaning in the interpretative context.
The article draws its methodological and theoretical frames from various semioticians who shaped the understanding of art history, as well as landscape design. The theory of semiotics is credited to two major theorists, Pierce and Ferdinand de Saussure, resulting in two major camps, American and French semiotics. Semiotics derived from the Greek word sēmeioun, meaning interpreting the sign or alternatively the sign itself, is understood as the theory of signs, the science of signs. Aiello (2020) makes this important description of semiotics:
… semiotics is indeed both a theory and a methodology that can be applied to a variety of ‘texts’, including novels, paintings, films, buildings, websites, and even clothing. The term ‘text’ refers to any semiotic object endowed with material or symbolic boundaries and structural autonomy, or where different parts all have a function in relation to a ‘whole’ and which can therefore be examined as a unit. (p. 368)
As a methodological design, semiotics allows the critic to examine sign within a sign system in order to arrive at a particular meaning. In our case, we shall examine the cultural context that produces the sign, and the context in which the sign is interpreted. Signs, therefore, find expression and meaning in cultural contexts which should be considered in the moment of interpretation.
Pierce identifies three kernels of semiotics, namely, an icon, index, and a symbol all providing a referential meaning, constituting the semiotic triangle; unlike the sign-signified dichotomy suggested by Saussure (Gatsou, Politis & Zevgolis 2012:94). Ùjavári (2020) employs three levels of meaning to explain religious symbols, namely, semantic, syntactic, and pragmatics. In his explanation:
[S]emantics deals with the signification of signs (the representation or conveying of the meaning); syntactic involves combinations of signs, and pragmatics is that portion of semiotics that examines the origin, uses, and effects of signs in the situation in which they occur. (p. 18)
Panofsky’s concepts of iconography and iconology come very close to the use of signs and icons in determining what to mean in art (Hasenmueller 1978). In his interpretation of meaning in art, Panofsky speaks of three levels of meaning, namely, primary (or natural) meaning, secondary (or conventional) meaning, and intrinsic meaning. Primary meaning relates to factual meaning, which is the identification of visual objects from experience, as well as the expressional meaning connected with sensitivity to the psychological understanding of the facts.
For Panofsky, the primary meaning is sensible, whilst the secondary meaning is intelligible. This mutual intelligibility of signs is a result of shared experiences, producing shared meanings. Panofsky’s ideas about signifying gestures and signified messages help us to delve into the realm of signification, examining symbols as signs pregnant with meaning that require interpretation. We contend that the connection between signs and meaning is not a straightforward route, but complex. For this reason, the iconography of the Serima Mission is open to multiple interoperations which we acknowledge; however, meanings ascribed are also indicative of the religious and theological themes, and views connected with such iconography. This article considers visual iconography as a branch of semiotics, detailing both theory and methodology. It observes images, symbols, and icons as representations of real and imagined objects, subjects, and landscapes. These are examined against their socio-cultural milieus; in our case, these objects are located within African culture, thus allowing the pre-sensing and (re)positioning of African culture in the centre of the critical enterprise.
Father John Groeber
Father John Groeber’s early life and professional background is largely documented by Plangger and Diethelm (1977:5–10), Morton (2012), and Zhou (2017:54), among many others. His early life, particularly his professional background is a prerequisite to the understanding of his impact in Zimbabwe as a clergyman of unprecedented artistic abilities. Never in the history of Catholicism in Zimbabwe has there been a clergyman so gifted in architecture and artistry as Father John Groeber. He was born in 1903 in Basel, Switzerland to a Christian family with limited resources. Because of the financial challenges and modest family background, John’s academic career was disrupted before he completed high school. As a school dropout, at the age of 16, he took his first job as an apprentice building draughtsman for an architectural firm, a profession that equipped him for six years with the basics of architecture and construction and further polished his innate talent and potential for technical drawing. As a draughtsman, he also had the chance to work on some famous building projects such as the Federal Charter Archive (Morton 2012).
Driven by an insatiable appetite to become a Catholic priest and a fisher of men (Mt 4:18–20), John Groeber later joined the Swiss Bethlehem Missionaries (SMB) in 1926. As underscored by Plangger and Diethelm (1977) and Zhou (2017:54–55), it was during this protracted period of training, spanning over 10 years that John completed his High School studies, thereby receiving formal education once more after several years of academic inactivity. After the completion of his priestly studies, possibly philosophy and theology, John was ordained a Catholic priest in 1936. As a young priest who was passionate and enthusiastic about spreading the gospel message through art, soon after his ordination to the priesthood in 1936, Fr John’s superiors allowed him to enrol at Kunstgewerbeschule Lucerne, a famous educational centre that specialised in training teachers and students in the field of visual arts before they could be deployed for missionary work.
During his short stint at Kunstgewerbeschule Lucerne (1936–1939), John received thorough training in European art history. He also took the opportunity to study Romanesque painting and architecture even though he was recalled by his superiors before he could complete his degree. Haene (1966), however, posits that even though he was without a degree, Groeber possessed a vast knowledge in architecture, construction, and art. Armed with such skills that put him in a class of his own, Groeber was then capable of producing an architectural triumph that would define his life’s work in spite of his poor background and marginal academic credentials and abilities (Plangger & Diethelm 1977:5–10). Morton (2012) described Fr John Groeber as a highly introverted autodidact, a condition that could have possibly contributed to a display of his architectural genius.
Missionary assignment to Rhodesia
Equipped with a smattering of construction, architecture, and art training in his professional background as observed by Morton (2012), Fr John Groeber was posted as a missionary to Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in 1939, just on the eve of the Second World War (01 September 1939 – 02 September 1945). When Fr Groeber arrived in Zimbabwe, Bishop Chichester had already founded Chishawasha Regional seminary in 1936 in Salisbury (now Harare). By then, Bishop Chichester had thrown himself, heart and soul, into the creation of an African clergy, which he considered the most important work of his episcopate (Dachs & Rea 1979:136). Chichester’s long-range objective was to create a self-ministering church that would be ministered and served by purely sons and daughters of the soil at some stage.
In a paper presented at the Kevin Carroll Conference on African Christian Art on 06 October 2012, Morton hailed Fr John’s workshop at Serima Mission and its impact on the Zimbabwean Stone Sculpture movement. She underscored that in his early years in Rhodesia, Fr Groeber was rather nomadic. For nearly a decade, he moved from one mission station to another, working on a number of building projects (Morton 2012). Zhou (2017:55) also underlined that in the period 1940 to 1946, Fr Groeber never stayed at one place for a long time but moved from one mission to another, a period during which he completed a total of six building projects. Some of the mission stations where Fr Groeber stayed before he moved to Serima include Chishawasha in Harare, Driefontein in the Midlands province, Silveira in Bikita District, St Joseph’s in Chirumanzu, and Gokomere in Masvingo (formerly Fort Victoria). Wherever he went, in both churches and schools, Fr Groeber painted sets of murals portraying biblical scenes based on African designs, much to the delight of the local converts (Morton 2012).
Thus, from 1939 to 1948, Fr Groeber showed that he was an ideal architect. Dachs and Rea (1979:138) documented that Fr Groeber made a beginning of his great work of art at the Regional Seminary in Salisbury. His artistic potential and genius is particularly noticeable in the arches in front of the seminary chapel. Upon the completion of his building projects at various mission stations, in 1946, Fr Groeber made a formal request to his superiors for the approval and authorisation to build and run his own mission that reflected his artistic genius and talent. For two years, his superiors seriously reflected and prayed about his request. After some serious pastoral and theological considerations, in 1948, his request was granted. He was then given a daunting task to develop Serima Mission in Gutu district, ‘a mission which he so built his art school as to make it one of the best-known missions in the country today’ (Dachs & Rea 1979:152). Seemingly, his heart was restless until it rested at Serima Mission in 1948.
Serima mission and school of iconography (1948)
Plangger and Diethelm (1977), Morton (2012), and Zhou (2017), among many others, concur that upon arriving at Serima Mission in 1948, Fr Groeber’s missionary approach was impressive and methodical, employing some short, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-bound objectives and techniques to build his dream mission in the Serima reserves. Realising that there were no schools to provide education to the local people within the Serima reserves then, Fr Groeber’s first objective was to establish a mission school to provide the academic needful. With the help he got from a couple of his SMB missionaries and local converts, by 1955, the Serima boarding school had been completed. When Fr Groeber realised his first objective, he then turned his attention and full energies on the construction of the church in 1956, largely through the assistance of about 15 male students from his newly established art workshop. Father Groeber’s art workshop was popularly referred to as the Serima African School of iconography. By then, local craft production was practically extinct in the reserves that the Rhodesian settlers restricted their African subjects to (Morton 2012).
The contribution of Fr Groeber’s art students in the construction of both the school and church was impressive and unprecedented. Names such as Gabriel Hatugari, Cornelius Manguma, Ernest Bhere, Nicholas Mukomberanwa,3 Joseph Ndandarika,4 Khumalo, and Sgango feature more prominently among Fr Groeber’s most trusted students. As a man who possessed background abilities in architecture, construction, and art before he came to Zimbabwe, as has already been highlighted, Fr Groeber was passionate about the school of art and thus worked hard to develop the creative talents of these prominent first-generation artists in Zimbabwe. These local artists worked mainly in the afternoons, training in various fields such as drawing, patterning, pit firing, wood, and stone carving. In return, Fr Groeber gave them scholarships (Morton 2012). He was very particular about decorating the church interior. He only assigned his students to decorate the church interior when he was satisfied with their artworks and technical abilities. No second-class art was to be accepted for decorating the church interior. Inasmuch as they were at liberty to be as creative as possible, under the watchful eye of their most trusted patron, they were, however, forbidden to produce carvings for sale. By 1958, the church exterior was completed and the church interior followed, eight years later in 1966. The Diocese of Gwelo dedicated the Church to St Mary the Mother of God; hence the name St Mary’s. Courtesy of Fr Groeber and his team of local artists, today, dominating the site at Serima Mission is the huge church with a steeple, decorated outside (at the back) with different soul daubs in the traditional Makaranga5 fashion (Zhou 2017:58). Whilst Serima church towers above all other buildings at Serima Mission, it is the church interior and exterior that deserve particular mention.
It should be emphasised from the beginning that Fr Groeber showed great artistry in ornamenting both the church interior and exterior, adapting the church structure to African culture and climate. In view of the fact that Fr Groeber’s main objective was to spread Christianity through art, the Serima church interior was thus intended to create an African expression of Christianity, with numerous decorative wood and stone sculptures in African form. The church interior presents an expression of the power of African art, visual language, summation of the catholic faith, and the otherness and transcendental nature of the omniscient, omnipotent, and omnibenevolent Christian God, much to the appreciation of Fr Groeber’s more than 1000 converts at Serima Mission then. Paintings of biblical scenes and stories that summarise Catholic faith are clearly visible from the entrance right up to the altar. Most icons commonly depict Christ, the Blessed Virgin Mary, saints, angels, and prophets although a lot more depict some outstanding biblical episodes. These include annunciation of Jesus (Lk 1:26–38), nativity (Lk 2:1–13), wise men from the East (Mt 2:1–12), baptism of Jesus (Mt 3:13–17), sermon on the mount (Mt 5–7), the Last Supper (Mk 14:22–25), the passion of Christ (Mt 26–27), resurrection (Jn 20:1–10) and ascension of Jesus into heaven (Mk 16:19–20), among many other biblical stories and episodes.
Describing Serima Mission exterior and interior art, Saint Mary’s Mission (1962:7) remarked that Serima art is a combination of an ‘almost Spanish style and elements of the medieval Romanesque church’. Arched doors and strip buttressing give the church an almost medieval touch. Plangger and Diethelm (1977) also underscored that the triangular apse with the consequent overall resembles a huge pair of shorts, with all church doors, altars, window frames and shrines having been made by Fr Groeber’s students. Sultan (1999:11) cited by Zhou (2017) also adds that the wooden sculptures that decorate the Serima Church and school ‘are striking in their simplicity, geometric structures, and expressionist feel, halfway between Roman sculpture and African art’. Summarising the same general picture at the magnificent Serima Mission, Fute (n.d.:par 1) thus remarked:
… It is a medieval church and is one of the most amazing monuments in the country. Apart from the fact that the building was built in the spirit of European medieval architecture, it is above all the admirable paintings and sculptures that surprise the traveller…You must take time to admire the doors, the beams, and the furniture entirely carved by hand, the pillars with the appearance of totems, the sculptures of African angels, as well as the frescoes and bas-relief refracting episodes of the Bible. A very interesting little cultural detour. (n.p.)
From 1948 to 1968, being guided by an insatiable appetite to spread the word of God through art, Fr Groeber thus introduced a unique dimension and model of evangelisation at Serima Mission, Gweru Diocese, and Zimbabwe Catholicism at large before he was transferred to Driefontein in 1968 at the age of 65. Even though he initially rejected the transfer, citing old age, he, later accepted the new appointment and opened yet another art school at Driefontein Mission in 1972, shortly before he died in 1973. Ever since Fr Groeber’s demise in 1973, Serima African school of iconography has become a subject of serious sustained academic research at both local and global levels. Of keen and particular interest is the role and place of religious icons and images in African Christian worship.
The role of church art in African Christian liturgy
Whilst the atmosphere at Serima Mission (particularly church interior) expresses an abridged episode of the Catholic faith and the uniqueness and transcendental nature of the omniscient, omnipotent, and omnibenevolent Christian God, the role of church art or church aesthetics in African Christian worship cannot be overemphasised.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994: hereinafter CCC) is the deposit of the Catholic faith, including the belief in icon and image veneration. The Catholic Church stipulates that because the incarnation of the Son of God (Christ) has ushered in a new economy of images, it logically follows that the sacred image, the liturgical icon, principally represents Christ, for it cannot represent the invisible and incomprehensible God. Thus, fundamentally, Christian iconography expresses in images, the same Gospel messages that sacred scripture communicates by word. The Catholic Church thus further emphasises that all signs in the liturgical celebrations are, therefore related to Christ, as are sacred images of Mary the Mother of God and the saints. They all signify Christ who is glorified in them (CCC 1994:303).
In an interview conducted by one of the authors at Serima Mission to establish the role of iconography in Christian liturgy, particularly at Serima Mission, it was established that the role and function of innumerable sets of murals portraying biblical designs and patterns at Serima Mission are critical. Although Serima art has been described as a combination of an almost Spanish style and elements of medieval Romanesque (Saint Mary’s Mission 1962), parishioners at Serima Mission strongly believe that Serima iconography, which is a blending of Christian iconography and African art, enhances the beauty of their church as a house of God and their house of prayer for decades. (Masango Muchena, interview, 20 August 2018). Thus, even though McLaughlin (1996) described Serima art as outstanding, Fute (n.d.:par 1) ranked Serima art as an interesting cultural detour in its own regard.
Besides enhancing the beauty of Serima Mission, taking full cognisance of the fact that Serima iconography is particularly rich with symbolism in its theology, it has been and continues to be instrumental in instructing the faithful in matters pertaining to the Christian (particularly Catholic) faith (Matapire Murenga, interview, 04 April 2018). In view of the fact that during Fr Groeber’s long stint at Serima Mission (1948–1968), the majority of his parishioners were illiterate and Bibles were not easily available and affordable, visual catechesis was, therefore, critical. Thus, as Fr Groeber conducted his regular catechism classes, art and religious images were used as teaching aids, much to the appreciation of his largely illiterate Karanga parishioners. Pope Gregory 1 (c. 540–604), who is ranked and remembered as one of the four greatest fathers of the Church (alongside Ambrose (339–397) Augustine (354–430), and Jerome (347–240) is remembered by his remark that art is to some extent the book of the illiterate.
Apart from being used as teaching aids by catechists at Serima Mission, both exterior and interior Serima art was also critical in constantly reminding parishioners of their sacrosanct beliefs and practices as members of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church (Makore Tapiwa, interview, 10 August 2018). As observed by Cavarnos (n.d.:par 10), Christians know many things about God, exemplary characters, and noble deeds of many holy personages but they tend to forget them as they preoccupy themselves with everyday matters and pursuits. Surrounded by icons, Christians do not fall asleep spiritually. They are constantly reminded and lifted up to the prototypes, to a higher level of consciousness of thought and feeling. They believe that prototypes such as Christ, Mary, prophets, saints, apostles, and martyrs do enjoy a higher level of being than ordinary Christians in their ordinary distracted everyday life. The symbolic and sacramental nature of icons in this regard is clearly spelt out. An icon is not an end in itself but simply a means, a symbol that carries Christians and believers well beyond itself. It is designed to lead devotees from the physical and psychophysical to the metaphysical and transcendental realities. In that regard, icons may be conceived as having a deductive function, from the horizontal to the vertical. Thus, traditionally, they have always served as sacramental, defined as sacred signs which bear a resemblance to the Sacraments6 (McIntosh 2020:par 3).
Closely connected to lifting Christians up to the prototypes as highlighted, icons also play a fundamental and foundational role in stirring Christians to imitate the virtues of their role models in faith (Manyara Muchaneta, interview, 20 April 2018). The same point is also echoed by Cavarnos (n.d.:par11) when he emphasised that the more holy personages are seen in icons, the more are the beholders lifted up to the memory of the prototypes. In the last analysis, the prototype is God who created men and women in his own image. The CCC (1994) rightly puts it:
The beauty of the images moves me to contemplation, as a meadow delights the eyes and subtly infuses the soul with the glory of God. Similarly, the contemplation of sacred icons, united with a meditation on the Word of God and the singing of liturgical hymns, enters into the harmony of the signs of celebration so that the mystery celebrated is imprinted in the heart’s memory and is then expressed in the new life of the faithful. (p. 304)
Thus, in order to constantly remind them of the deeds of their personages, a number of parishioners at Serima Mission have assumed new names at baptism as recommended by the church. Names such as Mary, Joseph, Peter, Elizabeth, Matthew, and John as opposed to traditional Shona names feature more prominently (Tanaka Mawire, interview, 15 August 2018). The Catholic Church often emphasises that at baptism, the new convert receives a new name in the church. This could be the name of a saint or a disciple who has lived a life of exemplary fidelity to the Lord. That particular personal patron saint provides a model for charity and the church is assured of his or her intercession. The baptismal name can also express a Christian mystery or virtue. Thus, parents, sponsors, and the pastor are urged to make sure that a name is not given which is foreign to Christian sentiment (Canon 855).
It is critical to underline that religious icons are intended to transform the character of believers, their whole being in order to sanctify them. One interviewee remarked that when he looks at an icon during public worship, particularly the celebration of the Eucharist, in essence, it is not him looking at the icon but rather the icon looking at him and probably asking him some personal moral questions. By doing so, he is forced to change his character. He is stirred morally and spiritually. Consequently, he becomes like that which he habitually contemplates (Masango Machawira, interview, 10 April 2018). Thus, the primary function of an icon is liturgical. It is a means of worship and veneration. As observed by Cavarnos (n.d.:par 15), like sacred hymns and music, an icon is used as a means of worshipping God and venerating his saints. The same point was echoed by yet another interviewee who emphasised that when she participates in a liturgical celebration, particularly the Eucharist, all her five senses will have a chance to actively participate. Surrounded by religious icons and images that she could see and touch, enjoying a strong sweet smell of incense during Holy Mass, listening to the sound of church bells that often signify critical stages of the holy celebration and, finally receiving and tasting Holy Communion, a well-prepared devotee makes an encounter with the living and transcendental God without fail (Tanaka Mawire, interview, 15 August 2018).
Whilst Serima iconography served and continues to serve as a means of spreading the Gospel as Fr Groeber’s primary focus and the main objective, it had several other functions within and beyond Zimb |
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