To share the gospel with unbelievers, Christians attempt to use a crossed method of evangelism. The purpose of this crossed method is to engage with people’s own culture from a Christian standpoint. In Bali, for instance, Christians utilise tapak dara to communicate the cross in Christianity. To Balinese-Hinduists, tapak dara is widely believed to bring salvation, happiness, and energy in the universe. Interestingly, the symbol of tapak dara is similar to the cross in the Christianity. Thus, evangelists and missionaries tend to use tapak dara to connect the salvation through the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross. Although this method of evangelism offers some advantages, the parallelism between tapak dara and the cross reveals more differences than similarities. Therefore, this article argues that the parallelism between tapak dara and the cross should be carefully compared because they share more differences than similarities.
Contribution
This research will compare the meaning, the usage, and the function of tapak dara with the cross. The article contributes to mission studies and cultural studies.
dialoguetapak daraBalithe crossevangelismmission studiesFunding information This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.Introduction
Indonesia has more than 400 different ethnic groups with their distinct cultural identity (Chia 2022:91–98; Geertz 1963:24). In addition, the diversity has been reflected in religions. Although 87.2% of the population in Indonesia are Muslims as of August 2023, Indonesia also has Protestants and Catholics (9.90%), Hindus (1.69%), Buddhists (0.72%) and Confucians (0.05%) (Statista.com, n.d.; Britannica.com 2022:1). Most of the Hinduists live on Bali Island. These people are different from most of Hindus around the world because they incorporate and assimilate their indigenous belief and practice with Hinduism such as tapak dara (Sukadana 2022). As mission is a major key to unlock the metanarrative story of the Holy Bible (Wright 2006:17), therefore Christians should carry and fulfil the Great Commission to the whole world. To take the gospel to the different contexts and cultures, the evangelists and the missionaries often need to do cross-cultural evangelism (cf. Adiatma, Wijoyo & Sutrisno 2022; Kim 2022; Ngebbu 2022). Therefore, some evangelists and missionaries apply inculturation theology (Enos 2012; Mandriasa 2019; Sukadana 2022; cf. De Mesa & Maggay 2018).
Inculturation theology means the gospel is communicated in a specific context to make the gospel applicable within a particular cultural context. This inculturation theology method encourages the Christians to take up the resources of their own cultures and share the gospel. In short, theology should be catalysed by context (De Mesa 1999:118). In the book Gospel in Filipino Context, Maggay explains that because the Filipinos need concrete images to worship, therefore the gospel needs to be translated using parables and stories rather than general truths and propositions (De Mesa & Maggay 2018). This methodology is based on the statement of Stephen Bevans: doing contextual theology is not an option, but it is a theological imperative because it is an effort to comprehend Christian faith in terms of a specific context (Bevans 2002:3). De Mesa and Maggay believe that theology develops in a particular context. Therefore, comprehending the contexts is the key to share the gospel (De Mesa & Maggay 2018).
In his dissertation, Sukadana (2022) also argues for inculturation theology. He defends the usage of tapak dara to introduce Jesus Christ who died on the cross to the Balinese-Hinduists to explain the cross in Christianity. Sukadana believes that tapak dara is in the crossroad with the cross. Thus, tapak dara is seen as the best evangelism method to share the gospel.
This article attempts to carefully examine the comparison between tapak dara in Bali-Hinduism and the cross in the Christianity. This article welcomes the comparison of tapak dara with the cross because there are similarities between tapak dara and the cross such as their symbols and the meanings of the symbol. Nevertheless, this research reveals that tapak dara shares more differences than similarities with the cross in Christianity. Therefore, this article argues that the evangelists and the missionaries could use tapak dara to explain the gospel carefully.
Methodology
Goheen (2014:264–265) raises a few questions that relate to the evangelism and mission: How did the gospel relate to these new cultural contexts? What is the relationship between gospel and culture(s)? What is faithful contextualisation? Missionaries and evangelists, who want to communicate the gospel in understandable ways in a foreign setting, should answer these questions. Contextualisation is a primary key to the Great Commission, and it would make the gospel becoming relevant to new cultural contexts. However, the major question is not about contextualisation, but whether the contextualisation of the gospel is faithful or unfaithful (Goheen 2014:264–265). Goheen explains that the issue of contextualisation is the problem of mission and evangelism. It could captive the gospel in two ways: ethnocentrism and relativism (Goheen 2014:268). Goheen defines ethnocentrism as a cultural expression of the gospel, which is understood as normative for all others. A Western form of the gospel was considered normative for all the culture in which evangelists and missionaries go (Goheen 2014:268). Relativism, on the other hand, is the opposite challenge. Relativism means that there is no cultural expression of the gospel that can be judged right or wrong by the Bible or people from another culture. The danger of relativism is syncretism which is derived from the effort to present the gospel relevant to the specific context (Goheen 2014:269). In the gospel in a pluralist society, Newbigin (1989) summarises the challenge for evangelists and missionaries:
[T]he question of the relation of gospel to culture in one of the most vigorously debated subjects in contemporary missiology. But one has to ask whether the way in which the question is posed does not imply already an unacknowledged and disastrous dualism … The question of gospel and culture is sometimes discussed as though it were a matter of the meeting of two quite different things: a disembodied message and a historically conditioned pattern of social life. (p. 188)
This article, therefore, follows Goheen’s methodology of contextualisation: faithful contextualisation. There are three main elements of this methodology. Firstly, the church at the crossroads between the gospel and culture. This element comes from the belief that the gospel is a universally valid message to the whole world. It is always incarnated and expressed in some cultural nuance. Secondly, the first commitment is to the gospel and its story. The church’s first and the foremost commitment must be to the gospel. The gospel is a timeless story and truth that stands above all cultures. Thirdly, sharing the gospel should be an ongoing process of contextualisation that incorporates dialogue to find the fine lines between the faithfulness to the Bible and cultural relevance. This dialogue should be cross-confessional, cross-cultural, and cross-historical (Goheen 2014:288–293). DeVries calls this methodology global contextualisation (DeVries 2021:1–8). Based on DeVries (2021:1–8), the evangelists and the missionaries should consider three criteria: biblical, ethical, and missional. Global contextualisation humbly listens to the churches how to be more faithful and effective in sharing the gospel, humbly learns from church history, and humbly welcomes opinions from various socio-cultural churches about the gospel and culture (DeVries 2021:1–8). In other words, this research employs these three elements to analyse tapak dara for Hinduists in Bali: find the crossroads between the gospel and culture, commitment to the gospel, and discover the fine line between the gospel and culture through dialogue.
Tapak daraThe meaning
Tapak dara has a plus (+) symbol. This symbol communicates relationships. Vertical line speaks about the relationship between the creator with humans through banten (Yuliari 2019:7). Why do humans need an instrument or banten? Yuliari explains that because of the limitation of humankind, human beings need an instrument or banten to visualise their worship (Yuliari 2019:7). For Balinese-Hinduists, they use tapak dara as their banten or instrument to relate to God. Horizontal line, from the east to the west or Raditya-Buddha to Surya Chandra, pictures the harmonic relationship of human beings (Kiriana 2021:122). In short, tapak dara depicts the relationship between God and human beings or parhyangan, and human beings with the other human beings or pawongan.
The functions
Tapak dara is considered as the basis of Swastika (Creativany 2020:69). What is Swastika? Swastika is the foundation of salvation, happiness, and energy in the universe. In Hinduism, Swastika is a holy symbol because it serves as an energy and a welfare of Bhuana Agung (macro-cosmos or the universe) and Bhuana Alit (micro-cosmos or human being) (Kekeran 2022). As a result, tapak dara is used as a protection, healing, and harmonisation of the universe (Avalokitesvari 2017:14; Titib 1999:376). Based on the belief of Balinese-Hinduists, there are three kinds of sickness. Firstly, the sickness that attacks human beings or gering, for instance, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Because COVID-19 is a universal pandemic, so it is called gering agung by Balinese-Hinduists. Secondly, the plague that strikes animals or grubung. Lastly, the plague that infects plants or sasab merana (Parmajaya 2020:109). Tapak dara offers protection and healing to human beings (gering), animals (grubung), and plants (sasab merana). In addition, tapak dara signifies the harmonisation between God and human beings and human beings with the others. The importance of harmonisation with God is described in Bhagavad Gita. IV. 27 (Artika 2004:19):
Prasantamanasan Hy EnamWaginam sukham utanamUpaiti santarajanamBramabutha makalmasham
Translation: because the highest level of happiness comes from peaceful mind, and calm desire, in the state of holiness and become one with God.
Triguna (2000:25) also states the prominence of the harmonisation:
Yo ntahsukho ntararamasTahta ntajyotir eva yahSa yogi brahmanirwanamBrahmabhuto dhigacchati
Translation: He (she) who finds joy in his (her) heart
His (her) conscience will be peaceful, he (she) will shine within himself (herself)
This state will be holy
To enter nirvana together with Brahman.
Tapak dara symbolises the harmony of the relationship between human beings and their environment or palemahan. For instance, I Wayan Suardiana describes that the elders in Bali use the symbol of tapak dara to preserve their environment. When woodcutters see this symbol on the trees, then they will not dare to cut the trees (Suardiana 2014:1). In addition, the symbol of tapak dara is also used on doors, clothes, and human body. At the door of the house or angkul-angkul, this symbol is believed to offer protection, sanctification, and welfare to the household (Kekeran 2022). In other words, this symbol signifies that nothing or no one can disturb that house. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Balinese-Hinduists have the symbol of tapak dara at their doors to protect them from COVID-19 (Artajaya 2020:660). On clothes, the symbol of tapak dara has a purpose to preserve humans away from sickness and calamity (Utami 2011:5). On the human body, this symbol is used to heal and to cast out evil spirits or bhuta kala (Suka Yasa 2020). To heal people, the symbol of tapak dara is written with chalk or pamor on the palm or foot of the sick and spelled with incantation (Avalokitesvari 2017:114). In relation to bhuta kala, bhuta kala is an evil spirit that disturbs the balance and the harmony of the universe or human being. Soeriadiredja (2015:10) says that bhuta kala is believed as the cause of calamity such as natural disaster, plagues to animals and plants, human sickness, even social justice problems. Soeriadiredja (2015:10) continues that because bhuta kala is a spirit, it cannot be defeated physically. Therefore, to defeat the evil spirits or bhuta kala, the Balinese-Hinduists use tapak dara. Balinese-Hinduists believe that tapak dara will protect the household from the attacks of bhuta kala and provide peace at home.
Comparison
Figure 1 shows the picture of tapak dara (Popmama.com n.d.).
Similarities.
Similarities between the cross and <italic>tapak dara</italic>
Table 1 provides similarities between tapak dara and the cross.
Similarities.
Variable
Tapak dara
The cross
Symbol
Vertical and Horizontal
Vertical and horizontal
Meaning
Relationship between God and human beings
Relationship between God and human beings
Place
Door, clothes, and human body
Door, clothes, and human body
The first similarity is the symbol of tapak dara Bali-Hinduism and Christianity or cross. They share a similar symbol that has both vertical and horizontal lines (Sukadana 2022:284). The second positive assessment is the meaning of these vertical and horizontal lines. The vertical line demonstrates the relationship between God and human beings. The horizontal line exhibits the relationship between human beings and others (Avalokitesvari 2017:114; Kiriana 2021:122; Menzies & Horton 2015:99; Yuliari 2019:7; cf. 1 Tm 2:5; Rm 10:9; Jn 3:18; 1 Jn 2:2; Jn 13:34; 1 Jn 4:7–12). The third positive assessment is the place of the usage of this symbol: at the door, clothes, and human body (or as a necklace or ring) (Sukadana 2022:284).
Dissimilarities
Table 2 provides dissimilarities between tapak dara and the cross.
Dissimilarities.
Variable
Tapak dara
The cross
Incantations
Yes
No
Usage
Talisman
Symbol
For Belief
Yes. Foundation of the Balinese-Hinduists’ beliefs.
No
For Universe
Harmonisation of the universe
No
For Salvation
Yes
No
For Sanctification
Yes
No
For Healing
Yes
No
Despite some positive assessments, the comparison between tapak dara and the cross raises more dissimilarities than agreements. When it comes to the first dissimilarity, although Sukadana (2022:284) mentions the place of the usage of tapak dara symbol is the same with the cross in Christianity, Balinese-Hinduists engrave the symbol of tapak dara on the trees. Christians, on the other hand, do not engrave the symbol of the cross on the trees. While both Balinese-Hinduists and Christians could have the symbol of tapak dara and the cross on their body, Balinese-Hinduists use tapak dara with chalk and spell incantations.
The second disagreement is the usage of tapak dara and the cross. Balinese-Hinduists use tapak dara as their banten or talisman to protect and mediate them to the God. Most (not all) Christian Protestants, on the other hand, do not use the cross as a talisman. They use the cross as a symbol of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ (Lane 1987:232–242). The mediator between God and humankind is Jesus Christ, not the cross. John 14:6 says that Jesus is the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father, except through him. Paul also states the importance of Jesus as the mediator between God and humans (1 Tm 2:5). The author of the book of Hebrews reveals that Jesus is the mediator of a new covenant (Heb 9:14–15). Acts 4:12 says that there is salvation in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given among humans by which we must be saved (cf. Chia 2021; Gilkey 1986:384–400). In summary, Balinese-Hinduists hold tapak dara as their talisman and mediator to God, while the cross is used as a symbol only.
The third disagreement is the purpose of tapak dara and the cross. Balinese-Hinduists use tapak dara as the foundation of their beliefs about God, universe, creations, and humankind (Sukadana 2022:285). The cross, on the other hand, is only a part of Christian teachings. The resurrection of Jesus plays an important role in Christian faith (1 Cor 15:17). Paul says that without resurrection, then our faith would be in vain. Therefore, the cross (or the death of Christ) and the resurrection of Jesus Christ are the basis of Christian faith (Caldwell 1910:415–423; Cranfield 2005:382–391). The cross (the death of Christ) and the resurrection of Jesus will restore universe, creations, and humankind from sins (Rm 8).
The fourth disagreement is the symbol of tapak dara is used for the harmonisation of the universe: warna kerti [to harmonise plants], segara kerti [to harmonise ocean], danu kerti [to harmonise the water on the earth], jana kerti [to harmonise human beings], atma kerti [to sanctify soul], and buana kerti [to sanctify the whole universe]. The cross, on the other hand, is just used as a symbol of the death of Jesus Christ.
The fifth disagreement is tapak dara is believed to bring salvation both in physical and spiritual sense. In the physical sense, tapak dara will offer safety, protection, and prosperity. In the spiritual sense, tapak dara will reconcile the relationship between God and humankind. The cross, on the other hand, is the symbol in the spiritual sense: the restoration with God through the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. According to John 3:16, the cross communicates God’s love (cf. Rm 5:8). Paul argues that the cross depicts Christ’s humility and obedience up to the cross (Phil 2:7–8; Tillich 1955:189–197).
The sixth disagreement is tapak dara has been used for sanctification. Tapak dara is often utilised to consecrate the houses, offices, schools, and any kind of places. Bhuta-Yadnya is a holy sacrifice to sanctify places and it is used together with tapak dara (Sudiana 2018:23). In Christianity, the cross, on the other hand, is not used to consecrate places. The cross is placed in the houses, offices, or any kind of places as a symbol of God’s love (Ables 2021:15–36).
The last disagreement is tapak dara has been used to heal sickness. Balian or the shaman will rub the sick part of the body with pamor [chalk] to draw tapak dara. After drawing tapak dara, then balian or the shaman will spell incantation (Avalokitesvari 2017:114). Balinese-Hinduists believe tapak dara will bring healing and miracles (Sukadana 2022:299). The cross, on the other hand, is not used for healing, but just as a symbol of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Some Christians will use olive (or anointing) oil with prayer to heal, not the cross. Although using olive (or anointing) oil as their instrument, they testify about Jesus as the ultimate healer, and the saviour of humankind (Sukadana 2022:305–313).
Reflection
As Goheen states that the major question is not about contextualisation, but whether the contextualisation of the gospel is faithful or unfaithful (Goheen 2014:264–265). This article, thus, follows Goheen’s methodology of contextualisation: faithful contextualisation. There are three main elements of this methodology. These elements are finding the crossroad, commitment to the gospel, and discover the fine line. Evangelists and missionaries found the crossroads between Christianity and Balinese-Hinduists and the crossroad is the cross and tapak dara. The crossroads lay in their symbol and its meaning. Both have a vertical and horizontal line that signify the relationship between God and human beings.
After finding the crossroads, evangelists and missionaries need to keep their commitment to the gospel. How do they keep their faithfulness to the Holy Scriptures? This research provides seven disagreements between tapak dara and the cross. These disagreements will help evangelists and missionaries to be relevant to the culture(s) and to be faithful to the gospel. Although tapak dara and the cross share an identical symbol, tapak dara is believed to be the source of healing and protection (Sukadana 2022:285), while the cross serves as a symbol of God’s love. Although tapak dara and the cross communicate the vertical and the horizontal relationship, tapak dara is believed to bring the harmonic relationship between human being with the universe or palemahan. Jesus Christ, not the cross, that restores all relationships.
Colossians 1:19–20 state that for God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. Although verse 20 mentions the cross, the focus of these verses is Jesus Christ. He, Jesus Christ, reconciles all things (or the universe) to himself (Metcalf 2019:280–302). Therefore, it is not the cross that brings forth the harmonic relationship, but Jesus Christ.
Therefore, this article proposes both the agreements and disagreements between tapak dara and the cross to discover the fine line between Balinese-Hinduists and Christians. In other words, the cross-confessional and cross-cultural can go hand in hand due to these agreements and disagreements. The cross-historical also helps the dialogue of tapak dara and the cross. In John Bunyan’s classic allegory of the Christian life The Pilgrim’s Progress, the main character, Christian, soon after coming to the cross and having his burden removed, finds himself at the foot of Difficulty Hill. It is significant that Bunyan introduces Christian to the Hill of Difficulty shortly after having his burden removed at the cross. For Bunyan knows that this is the way to the Celestial City, and Christian would need to learn this sooner rather than later. Indeed, not only did his journey not become easier after having his burden removed, but it also actually became harder. This is where this method of evangelism (using the cross as a healing instrument) goes so tragically amiss by depicting Christianity as a faith without Difficulty Hill (Pohlman 2022:48).
Conclusion
Could the evangelists and the missionaries use tapak dara in Bali-Hinduism to explain the cross in Christianity? Yes; however, evangelists and missionaries should be aware of the cross-confessional, cross-cultural, and cross-historical dialogue to be faithful to the gospel and to be relevant to the culture according to Goheen Cohen. This article, therefore, proposes three agreements and seven disagreements in the critical assessment section. The place of usage, the purpose of usage, the belief systems of tapak dara, and especially the functions of tapak dara for salvation, sanctification, and healing are totally different from the cross. Despite these major differences, tapak dara and the cross do have a few things in common such as the symbol and the meaning of the symbol. The evangelists could use these things to share the gospel with Balienese-Hinduists especially to communicate the relationship between God and the others through both horizontal and vertical lines. Nevertheless, the evangelists should use this comparison carefully and cautiously. Otherwise, people might be attracted to Christianity, but they would not be able to stay longer in Christianity or they might feel deceived by the Christians because this comparison shares more differences than similarities. This article is preliminary research, and it encourages the readers to investigate further how to bridge these dissimilarities and/or to find another approach to share the gospel to Balinese-Hinduists.
Acknowledgements
This article acknowledge Evangelical Theological Seminary of Indonesia in Bali which provides an elementary insight.
Competing interests
The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Author’s contributions
P.C. declares that they are the sole author of this article.
Ethical considerations
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.
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How to cite this article: Chia, P.S., 2024, ‘A dialogue of the usage of tapak dara to explain the cross in Christianity’, HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 80(1), a9597. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v80i1.9597