Many contextual theology models have been shared, but no formula applies to all contexts, because each culture has specific and unique features. Indonesia shares a complex context and requires a proper approach for precise landing. This study aimed to formulate a contextual theology model on the Spirit suitable for Indonesians. It moves from the ‘naked Spirit’, a term provided by Vincent Donovan, originally ‘naked gospel’, highlighting the essence of the scripture or Spirit itself, to the Nusantara contextual formula. The Nusantara model is a promising formula that could contribute inputs to the tension. The local contextual model is a bright sketch that could help Indonesians to engage with pneumatology in the church traditions. This study analysed and described articles, journals and other related sources with a sensitive approach. Additionally, it proposed argumentations and provided a prospective contextual theology model for the Spirit. The findings showed that the Nusantara formula is a significant model for the Spirit to engage in an Indonesian context.
Through the examination of contextual theology model globally, and especially speaking of the ‘naked Spirit’ insight, the study provided an alternative contribution to the contextual theology model. The result showed that the Nusantara contextual theology formula offers an alternative contribution to an Indonesian context.
Doing theology contextually is imperative and decolonising. As the most Muslim-populated country, Indonesia’s Christian community suffers from Western pneumatology and colonial theology. This knowledge does not touch the ground or reach the heart of the human experience. According to Bevans (
Popular works on contextual pneumatology are absent among Indonesian theologians. Some studies explored the works of the Spirit in the shadow of Western thought. Attempting to delve into local knowledge or connect the heart of pneumatology to local features is far from the expectation. Gener (
Traces of theological colonialism exist among the people. They are evidenced by the education centres in Batak, church constructions in Minahasa, Deutschland missionaries’ statues in Langowan and the Indonesian worldview. Moreover, Suh Sung Min recorded the suffering of Indonesian pneumatology. In Batak, the Spirit experiences ambivalence as the people are perplexed by the identity of the Spirit. Some Batak Christians are indirectly connected to ancestral spirits practices, while the church strongly forbids any beliefs related to the dead. The church has tried to adjust its teachings but has not achieved reconciliation. In Minahasa, the practices of ancestral spirits exist among the local ministers. Minahasans believe in Opo Empung as the highest god or the original and first spirit from which they came. A quantitative survey led by Min (
Indonesian pneumatology suffers from the colonialised formula that penetrates Spirit’s existence in the Trinity, struggling with its biblical approach and gender. The local people struggle to define the Spirit’s identity and experience its works. The Spirit’s existence is prominent and central to Indonesians’ religiosity and significant for Christian identity. It is inseparable from the Trinity, making it a significant distinguishing factor between the church and Islam. Therefore, Donovan (
Islam succeeded in stripping its teachings and covering them with Indonesian culture, making the country the most Muslim populated worldwide. The Islam movement was promoted by Islam Nusantara, a popular model that combines Islamic teaching and Indonesian culture. This encounter produced Islam with specific features different from ‘other’ Islam. Therefore, it is promising to explore pneumatology with the naked and Nusantara approach that could help Indonesian Christians construct their religio-cultural identity on the Spirit.
This qualitative study constructed the main idea based on local and international articles, books and other academic references. Ideas and knowledge were shared descriptively, followed by rigorous analysis, argumentations, critiques and new perspectives on the tension. The concept of the naked Spirit (Donovan
Naked Spirit implies stripping off the husk to grasp the kernel. Bevans categorised the idea into the translation model, his first model of contextual theology. However, the model differs from the idea of naked gospel or Spirit. A translation model works to translate the meaning of doctrines into another cultural context. This could make the doctrines look and sound quite different from their original sketch. Bevans emphasised the urgency to transform or translate the gospel’s meaning. The Spirit should experience radical meaning and value transformation to be grounded in the local context (Bevans
The Spirit’s kernel refers to its personality. According to Hilgard (
This study offered a new perspective on how the Spirit shares emotions such as grief, love and shyness as a being rather than a power (Rumbay
In ancient times, human experience with the Spirit shared a significant gap with the current and local context. Symbols, experiences and relations of the Spirit had a place for the Jews but are irrelevant to Indonesians. For instance, theologians have been involved in unending debates concerning the Spirit and the dove in the gospel. Some studies suggested that the dove does not exist in Jewish tradition, even in the original text. However, other studies stated that there was a translational or scribal error. Readers interpreted the text literally and considered the Spirit the real dove, while others are against such interpretation (Gero
The naked Spirit relates to the kernel as the unchangeable and the husk as the changeable. Pneumatology must experience decolonisation by stripping off the Hebrew and Jewish traditions or deconstructing and reconstructing the husk with local features. The Spirit’s personality is the unchanging kernel and over the culture. His works, passion, authority, responsibilities and divine status are essential and substantial and should be put into a new husk. The Spirit’s symbols, experience, relations such as the dove and wind, the practical works to comfort, and related to specific issues are nonessential.
In Indonesia, Muslims are either radical or moderate. Mustofa stated that Islamic radicals are responsible for negative
It is presented to signify Islamic moderation in Indonesia, which expresses peace, hospitality, harmony, and courteousness. Islam Nusantara represents an Islam that respects local tradition and culture but still firmly holds on to sharia teachings. It embodies Islam
Muzakki stated that Islam Nusantara is a model centred on Arabia and preaches ‘
The Nusantara formula requires stripping off Western thought, colonial features and the Middle Eastern culture and dressing it with local colours. This enables the Spirit’s personality to exist and share its essence with the hearers and readers. The core of pneumatology is the Spirit’s personality, which should be the centre of attention. It shows how the Spirit shared love, emotion, comfort, power in creation and his mighty is prominent compared to symbols or relation to the Trinity. However, naked Spirit does not mean decreasing the message, but it confirms the Spirit’s essence. Performing Nusantara pneumatology means that the naked Spirit or the husk does not intend to contradict the kernel or degrade the core. It invites missiologists, ministers and theologians to uncover the Spirit’s husk and present his personality in the local context. This confirms that the unchangeable Spirit’s personality is compatible with a local dress.
The Spirit’s personality judges all contexts, but at the same time, it should be engaged with the local culture. This means that the culture has no opportunity to distort the Spirit. Nusantara’s model of the Spirit does not consider the culture inferior but humbly welcomes the context to cover its essence. However, the Spirit’s personality and Indonesian cultures are compatible, mutual, and reciprocal. The husk of pneumatology is portable, meaning local culture is not absolute but a dynamic existence that always transforms. Furthermore, the Nusantara formula prepares local dress according to the Spirit’s personality and a new culture to the local context, offering a new civilisation with Christian features. It conserves the culture by proposing a Nusantara pneumatology in which the Spirit’s personality could land adequately. According to Felming (
In implementing the naked Spirit with the Nusantara formula, it should be noted that the word ‘spirit’ does not exist in the Minahasan language. They have no experience and knowledge on how to define spirit. Freddy Wowor stated that recent Minahasan thought is strongly influenced by Christianity. Some words became part of Minahasan vocabulary as a result of the inculturation of Christianity (F. Wowor, personal interview in Sonder Minahasa, 21 June 2021). However, the words ‘soul’ and ‘spirit’ are closely connected in Minahasan terms. They believe that each creature has a soul that should be respected, and the oldest or highest ancestral soul is known as
It is imperative to strip down pneumatology by removing all of the husk covering the core of the Spirit and reconstructing it with local features. In Indonesia, the Nusantara formula would help people have suitable experiences with the Spirit. The model offers a prospective contribution to pneumatology and the local context. Both are compatible and share promising inculturation. This would present a new face of the Spirit and new Indonesian Christian civilisations.
We want to extend our appreciation to Good Lingua, who helped in improving English grammar, and Brenda Abuno, who supported the reference software.
The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.
C.A.R. conceptualised, researched and, constructed its methodology, M.K. and V.H.S. contributed to the validation, supervision and resources. M.P. and F.S. engaged with software, validation and funding acquisition.
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors, and the publisher.