Emerging feminist scholarships are unveiling the interrelatedness of gender, economic development and environmental changes (Resurreccion 2017). Research from the 1980s reveals that women are key participants in environmental stewardship and economic development. Perceptions of the link between gender and environment vary. Some perceptions consider women to have a special and inherent connection with the earth while others see the link between women and the environment as that of being resource users and eco-political agents (Resurreccion 2017). Women are considered as being the ones who express slightly greater environmental concerns than men (Xiao & McCright 2017).

In this article, we provide an overview of the discourses around gender and the environment in religious settings. We foreground the gendered nature of environmental injustices that prevail during religious open-space gatherings. Gendered environmental injustice occurs when men and women are affected differently by environmental challenges (Sze 2017; Walker 2017). The main goal of this research is to investigate the challenges experienced by women in the Johanne Masowe WeChishanu Apostolic churches during their church services and how this perpetuates the already existing gender injustices and inequalities that prevail. We argue that in this era of climate change, women’s environmental rights and the environment itself are at risk during the Apostolic Johanne Masowe WeChishanu churches ‘open space gatherings’.

In the following section, we present the methodology and the theoretical framework. This is followed by a literature review on the interconnections of gender and the environment. Data analysis is presented, and the findings and the discussion of those findings form part of the penultimate section, followed by the conclusion and recommendations.

This article assumes a qualitative research approach. We employed the qualitative approach because it is the most prudent method for ascertaining the different experiences of women and men as it relates to their specific contexts. For this research, we conducted a case study. A questionnaire was prepared in line with the research objectives with semi-structured open-ended questions that identify the important variables. McMahon (2020) describes a case study as an illustrative approach normally used to illustrate the challenges or difficulties of a community. Thomas (2011) proffers that a case study helps to develop in-depth understandings of a given community, department, or group of people. A case study also goes beyond explaining or understanding occurrences in detail as it brings about practical solutions to the specific challenges within the community or organisation under study. This makes the study more practical. Gibson et al. (2009) identify a population as the totality of a group of people or objects the researcher intends to involve in a study. The population of the proposed study comprised 50 women and 50 men between the age of 30–50. In both samples, half of each were members of the church and the other half were non-members. A deliberate effort was made to include the above-mentioned age groups for consideration of experiences and maturity. The sample size for the current study comprises 100 participants.

This article applies feminist social justice theory. The feminist social justice approach is grounded in the real struggles and issues of women and recognises the link between theories and practices (McLaren 2019). These practices can be situated in religion, culture, or any walk of life. Recognising the link between theory, analysis and real-life struggles allows for an analysis that is informed by, and may inform, struggles for social justice on the ground. Jaggar (2009) argues that non-ideal theories of justice are better suited to effectively counter injustice by beginning from actual social and political conditions.

While to be male or female is biologically determined, gender is a socially constructed phenomenon. In the patriarchal construction of gender, specific roles are accorded to males and females. Men are constructed as leaders and heads of households while women are constructed as docile, meek and subservient (Van Marle & Bonthuys 2007). Van Marle and Bonthuys (2007:22) posit that while sex is about biological roles and features of women, gender constructs are societal roles.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2007) defines environment as: ‘the sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces, human-made, and other living things’. De Young (1999) views the environment not to be limited to its verbal meaning of nature and human environment but also to include environmental psychology that focuses on the behaviour of humans in any given environment.

Discussions on gender and environment have been centred on the analysis and critical examination of gender relations in different environmental contexts (Arora-Janson 2017). It is now common knowledge that environmental challenges are gendered. While men and women are both agents and victims of environmental constraints, they are ultimately affected differently with women bearing the brunt of environmental crises (Morrow 2017). Women are affected the most because their social responsibilities which include, among other things, fetching water, accessing and preparing food and obtaining fuel are closely linked to the environment. These gendered tasks put excessive strain on women. Moreover, dependent women often have limited or no agency because men hold the economic upper hand. Women are often excluded from decision-making processes for policy change and implementation. It is also argued that people in rural areas, in developing counties where there is high dependence on local natural resources, are the most vulnerable (FAO 2011).

As posited by Neumayer and Plümber (2007), the interconnection between poverty and vulnerability to climate change is flagrantly apparent. In Zimbabwe, there is a disproportionately higher percentage of poor women than poor men (Malaba 2006), making poor women disproportionately more vulnerable to the impact of climate change than poor men (Neumayer & Plümper 2007). Given the increased environmental instability, women will face particular challenges given their primary caregiving roles in times of disaster and environmental stress. Despite these challenges, many women have developed adaptive strategies to protect the sustainability of their environments and livelihoods. For example, poor nomadic women may have a relatively high adaptive capacity because of their intimate knowledge of their natural environment (Pearl-Martinez 2014). Their vast wisdom through experience is useful in mitigating climate change, tackling the effects of disasters, and developing skills that best deal with the situation at hand. Credit can also be given to women’s role-play as caretakers at household and community levels. Significantly, the gendered construction of such roles places women in a better position to contribute skills to tackle situations that are caused by the changing climate.

Although women and men can adopt and develop skills, scarcity of resources is often devastating. Hence the sustainability of the whole social, economic and political sphere is weakened (Pearl-Martinez 2014). FAO (2017) Domestic work pressure, a lack of access to productive assets, exclusion from significant opportunities, as well as access to agricultural aid, hamper efforts to ensure sustainability in the use of land. Stromquist (2001) posits that issues such as gender inequality pose a threat as they aggravate or disturb food security in many countries. Stromquist (2001) postulates that weather variations that are climate induced together with the act of destroying vegetation force women and younger girls to spend more of their time walking miles to get access to food and water. These activities often rob them of the time to invest in life-changing, income-generating projects. Limiting circumstances, therefore, do more harm than already done as it reduces or weakens the physical and mental strength women possess. The girl child, in particular, is severely affected as access to education becomes compromised.

Argawal (2009) argues that besides discovering women’s and men’s ability to manage environmental changes, gender also unearths faint structural injustices that have a devastating effect on women. Socially constructed roles, specifically gender-based division of labour, dictate how people interact with their surrounding environment. Neumayer and Plümper (2007) argue that these established relations towards natural resources, in turn, determine how different environmental risks and threats such as resource degradation, climate change or disasters affect women and men. These differentiations inevitably mean a discrepancy in perceived priorities, as well as the acuteness of rampant environmental challenges.

Gender and the environment are also linked to sustainable development. It can be argued that due consideration must be given to the prevailing gender situation within a society for the enhancement of the sustainability of said society’s relationships with nature (Littig 2017). The importance of gender in environmental governance for sustainable development came to the fore in a series of United Nations summits (Death 2011). These summits changed the discourse of sustainable development and linked it to gender and the environment (Foster 2011). Thus, the understanding of environmental problems and policy solutions must be done in the context of gender disparity (Foster 2011, 2014). Furthermore, the involvement of women in environmental policy-making processes has the potential to bring ideas, approaches, and strategies that can assist in ameliorating environmental challenges. It thus remains necessary to involve women in the discourse of environmental sustainability (United National Environment Programme [UNEP] 2016).

Significant to this study is the link between gender and the environment and religion. From religious doctrines, to faith, and the way in which they hold their meetings and special gatherings, religion clearly impacts and is impacted by the gendered nature of environmental crises. In the next section, we elucidate through data analysis the extent to which gender and the environment are linked to religion with a particular focus on the Johanne Masowe WeChishanu Apostolic churches’ gatherings.

In this section, we present an analysis of the reviews and data collected as well as an interpretation of the findings. The data is synthesised into simple graphs and charts for ease of comparison and viewing. Tables, graphs, and pie charts are used to display the results. A total of 100 participants were targeted. Eighty questionnaires were returned which shows a response rate of 80%. This shows that the research was highly successful and balanced. A response rate of more than 75% is a great response (Parker 2017). The high response rate can be attributed to the high literacy of the people. The sample was from a group of people with an interest in the subject matter; hence, they were willing to participate. Among the respondents, 55% were females and 45% were males. Of the 80 respondents to the questionnaires, 46 were people between 35 and 40 years. They are well-versed in development issues to have an interest in the subject matter. Sixteen participants representing 20% of the sample were in the range of 41 and 45, followed by 18 participants aged between 45 and 50 constituting 22.5%.

Figure 1 shows that most of the participants were members of the Johanne Masowe WeChishanu Apostolic churches. Eighty-seven per cent were members while 11% were non-members of the church. Two per cent of participants indicated other. These could be those who have constantly visited the church but remain unsure if they are yet members of the church. These results show that the sample was successfully purposive. The members of the church were asked to indicate the duration of their membership. All indicated that they were members of the church their whole lives; hence, they were born into membership. These results reflect how the members hold dear their religion and it also shows how women, in particular, have a strong attachment to the church.

Data analysis reveals that human beings impact the environment in different ways as indicated in Table 3 and Figure 4. Most of the environmental challenges that are apparent from the religious gathering arrangements of the Johanne Masowe WeChishanu Apostolic churches cause land pollution, deforestation, air pollution and land degradation. These environmental challenges in the current context of prevailing climate change, raise great concern and reveal that women suffer the effects of the environmental crisis to a greater degree than men. For instance, the burden of travelling long distances to fetch clean and safe water rests on women’s shoulders. Accessing firewood or choosing an alternative energy source is also the prerogative of women. Caring for the sick or injured in the midst of crippling environmental and economic challenges rests on women to a far greater extent than it rests on men. Smith and Leiserowitz (2013) define environmental challenge as the existence of crises in the environment in such a way that it can cause harm to (wo)men or the environment. Machingura (2011) notes that religious gatherings such as those conducted by the apostolic sect who are the champions of open-air gatherings have various impacts on people’s lives and affect the environment. This study finds that some environmental problems plaguing Zimbabwe are perpetuated through religious open-ground gatherings. These include desertification, deforestation, and air and water pollution. Kiarie (2020) and Bodjongo (2020) submits that a number of open-ground church gatherings are taking place in residential areas causing environmental pollution and noise pollution to the residents of those particular communities.

This article brings to light the impact the open-ground gatherings of the Johanne Masowe WeChishanu Apostolic churches have on the environment. Despite its noble reason to worship God and to help people on a spiritual level, the environmental challenges it presents cannot be ignored. Deforestation, air pollution, land and water pollution, and land degradation are crucial issues affecting the environment and the well-being of people and the ecosystem. In light of this, more deliberate and concerted efforts must be made to improve the conditions of worship at these gatherings, not only for the sake of worshippers, but for the sake of the environment. The deep impact these gatherings have on the lives and health of the women attending is stark. The study findings revealed the harsh realities women must endure and call for all stakeholders inclusive of religious organisations, government, congregants and local communities to engage collectively in order to stem the tide of the environmental crisis perpetuated through religious gatherings in Zimbabwe. The study, therefore, recommends that: