As per the teachings of Islam, social trust involves placing others as the pillars of the Islamic countries, which needs to be maintained. Therefore, any promise or action that undermines the social trust of the people as a social capital is one of the most important anti-social factors that must be dealt with. In view of that, Islam is struggling against hypocrisy as an antisocial trend, because it damages social trust when a hypocrite preaches one thing and does another; in other words, the deeds do not confirm the words. That is why citizens cannot believe and trust in their promises, because such individuals do not fulfil them at any time. In this context, officials are suggested to respect the principle of transparency in the governance of Islamic societies in order to improve citizens’ social trust. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the role of transparent governance based on the teachings of Nahj al-Balagha in creating social trust among 428 Iranian Muslim citizens in 2022. In sum, the results indicated that transparent governance has a significant positive effect on citizens’ social trust in the officials of Islamic societies, as calculated by structural equation modelling in Linear Structural Relations (LISREL) (path coefficient = 0.58;
This study provided a new insight into the role of transparent governance in creating and strengthening social trust among the officials and citizens of Islamic societies, which deserves further attention by governments and researchers.
Because of its novelty, the concept of good governance (GG) has, to date, been interpreted differently. In this sense, some scholars or institutions have defined GG along with its attributes, and others have introduced this concept together with its elements (Farazmand
Of note, GG is a complicated concept whose literal meaning has been constantly questioned among different scholars. Various definitions have been accordingly presented from diverse perspectives and sources, each one with a certain trend. As a normative concept, GG is a golden issue that deals systematically with the efforts made by citizens in a country (Omenugha, Uzuegbunam & Omenugha
Good governance incorporates some governance criteria, standards, procedures and principles through which governments are equipped to conduct public affairs, control existing resources and guarantee human rights and citizenship. Against this background, transparency, accountability, participation, rule of law and flexibility in governments have been established as the building blocks of GG. Additionally, GG is closely linked to democracy and democratic processes; in other words, it refers to a series of practical criteria and indicators of democratic political systems in procedural, structural and substantive dimensions. Good governance denotes the transparent and accountable management of human beings, nature, as well as economic and financial resources to achieve fair and sustainable development (Australian National Audit Office
Among the underlying issues in today’s Western societies and those influenced by Western culture is the loss of social capital, including social trust as one of its basic components. At present, the decline of social trust has resulted in a cultural identity crisis, gaining much attention among sociologists. Islamic societies also have the benefit of this capital to the extent that it adheres to Islamic teachings.
As human beings innately resort to social life to meet their various needs, general or social culture is often formed in the course of this lifestyle and its social interactions, which can represent the typical way of life, thoughts and actions of the people in a society. In this context, culture encompasses various components, including conscious and unconscious values and norms dominating interpersonal relationships. The culture in the communication between people in various societies and even among subcultures is also different, and it is formed largely under the influence of religious and moral teachings in a society, particularly in religious ones. As a social practice, Islam lays focus on self-regulation and above all highlights collective life; therefore, a large part of Islamic teachings centres on reforming the culture of communication and regulating people’s social interactions. Considering the importance of the issue, the present study aims to investigate how transparent governance based on Nahj al-Balagha affects social trust among Iranian Muslim citizens in 2022.
In the Holy Qur’an, the main religious holy book of Muslims, several ayats refer to government. In the Holy Qur’an, the government of Allah is presented on a wide level in front of the government of ‘tyrant’, and the prophets and laws have come to destroy the government of ‘tyrant’ and make the government of Allah universal. And replacing the government of Allah instead of the government of ‘tyrant’ is for those who have a divine aspect and are known as the Khalifah of Allah on earth, to rule and shorten the hand of the tyrant from government of society. Among these, the following can be mentioned as examples:
We have made you our Khalifah and successor on earth, so establish your rule on the basis of truth and justice, and avoid following your desires that lead you astray. Those who deviate from the right path and go astray will face the most severe difficulties, because they have forgotten the day of inspection. (Surah Ṣād, Ayat 26)
We have sent you the Qur’an and the Sharia, so that you may rule among the people according to the divine religion. (Surah An-Nisa, Ayat 105)
Have you not seen those who believe in what [
God is the protector and guardian of those who believe; He takes them out of the darkness to the light. [
It is worth mentioning that there are many such verses in the Qur’an that assert the sovereignty of Allah over society and fight and oppose any kind of tyranny. Therefore, it is appropriate to pay more attention to the concept of governance in Islamic society.
Transparency has existed in religious literature, along with many concepts that were popularised and developed in the modern era, which unfortunately have been induced for various reasons; such concepts are born of the post-Renaissance era and the modern era, and their origin is also the West. Islamic religious teachings are full of instructions for the correct management of the society. The following are some of the examples of such teachings: ‘And do not compare truth with falsehood! And don’t hide the truth even though you know it!’ (Surah Al-Baqarah, Ayat 42); ‘Do not follow what you do not know’ (Surah Al-Isra, Ayat 36).
In the Qur’an, obedience is based on awareness and transparency of human information, and blind obedience is condemned. Therefore, people have the right to obey the government based on their knowledge. In short, the more transparent the government is, and the more people are aware of it, the more likely they will obey the government.
In a part of his speech, Imam Ali (peace be upon him) advised Malik Ashtar not to distance himself from the people, especially for a long time, and emphasised the necessity of transparent face-to-face dialogue, and he considered this distance to be a factor in creating people’s suspicion towards him. Hakim says. In fact, the most disastrous consequence of the lack of transparency is the reduction of people’s trust in the government which leads to the weakening of social capital. (Nahj al-Balagha, Letter 53).
Governance means the act or function of governing and ruling (Biginia et al.
Governance is thus a multifaceted system of interactions between structures, traditions, functions, responsibilities and processes, characterised by three key values, namely transparency, accountability and participation. Accordingly, the government and civil society (i.e. socio-economic activists, community-based institutions, structured and unstructured groups, media, etc.) need to understand it at all local, national, regional and global levels (Doornbos
One definition for governance is the establishment of formal and informal processes, structures and regulations that outline the methods by which individuals and organisations can exercise power over decisions that might shape their well-being and quality of life. Governance is thus assumed as a continuous process in which the conflict of interests is settled and cooperative action is assumed (Klijn
The success rate of most systems is currently measured based on the realisation of two significant qualities, namely efficiency and effectiveness, which are associated with doing things right and doing the right things, respectively (Robbins
From an economic perspective, corruption is one of the main obstacles in the path to economic growth and development, which can cause inefficient policies, a reduction in investment and, as a result, a decrease in economic performance in governments (Dehmardeh, Alizadeh & Zaidizadeh
Currently, administrative corruption is a major challenge facing governmental organisations in many countries across the world. In this regard, the main objective of implementing an anticorruption strategy is to raise morale, trust and respect between the government and the people. There is mutual respect and a positive work environment where trust, integrity and a shared vision are valued. Once implemented, this strategy can have a long-term effect on governance, development and progress and even implications for social change (Sungbeh
Various indicators have been so far proposed for GG, including participation, consensus, transparency, accountability, effectiveness and efficiency, fairness, inclusiveness and rule of law. During this form of governance, corruption is minimised, the views of minorities are taken into consideration, the voices of the most vulnerable groups are heard and the present and future needs of the society are met. In this respect, Huther and Shah (
Transparency enables stakeholders to investigate and review any process. Clarifying the government performance accordingly helps to reduce corruption and inefficiency among employees and then improves their overall functioning (Trakulmututa & Chaijareonwattana
Today, the administrative system in all countries, even the most democratic, developed and underdeveloped ones, is suffering from corruption in all aspects. It means that such systems across the world are exposed to some degrees of corruption. Characterised by its cultural, political and economic components, corruption in any system takes certain forms, for example, paying a bribe at work to use some privileges or have permissions; receiving rewards for good service; not respecting clients; exploiting available documents in line with personal, familial, ethnic, racial and special class interests; buying off administrative agents; wasting public property for personal gain; altering documents; underperforming; or overlooking organisational duties (Khalaf Khani
In this regard, administrative corruption is a form of social deviance, placed in the category of white-collar organisational deviations; in general, it refers to a behaviour in which a person acts out of the framework of official duties in order to gain one’s personal interests and achieve greater welfare or better positions (Hassan Dost Farkhani & Yazdanpanah
If the law leads to more transparency of existing structures or current mechanisms, namely the clarification of property rights, information, opportunities, costs, benefits and the like, there is a ray of hope that further steps are being taken toward an institutional reform whose product is reducing corruption and exchange cost economics (Akai
Trust is a multidimensional concept with different meanings in various sources, such as confidence, predictability, ability, competence, expertise, benevolence, open management, interest, acceptance, reality and so on. Attention to this concept began to expand during the Eighties and is being investigated from different perspectives (Hassanzadeh
Although the concept of trust is rooted in Aristotle’s literature, there is still little agreement about what trust is and how trust can be achieved (Dieks & Ferrin
In the trust literature, three components have been so far reflected:
Ability: This is defined as a collection of skills, competencies and qualities that enable an organisation or institution to influence others in a specific domain. Because the trusted person may have high proficiency in some skills that increases the possibility of others trusting them, ability can have a certain range and scope. In any case, the trustee may have a small amount of proficiencies and talents as well as lived and working experiences in other fields, outside that specific extent.
Benevolence: This denotes the domain in which the trustee believes in doing something good for the trustor. Here, there is no motivation to give a benefit to the trustee, because they provide specific achievements for the trustor. An example is the communication between the trustor and the trustee. The trustee intends to help the trustor, although the trustee is not obligated to help and there is no external reward for the trustor.
Honesty or integrity: This means that the existence of a relationship between honesty and trust depends on the trustor’s perception of the trustee’s integrity and whether or not the trustor follows a series of principles that the trustee considers acceptable. Based on previous research, these components as the main effective factors can create trust (Alwani
According to the research literature, the following hypothesis is presented:
This research was conducted with the aim of determining the effect of transparent governance based on the teachings of Nahj al-Balagha on the social trust of Iranian Muslim citizens in 2022. For this purpose, 428 Iranian Muslim citizens were selected as the statistical population, using convenience sampling. After distributing the questionnaires, 402 persons were found appropriate and the rest were excluded from the analysis (because of the lack of correct completion). The demographic characteristics of the statistical population are provided in
Demographic characteristics of the statistical population.
Variable | Index | Value |
---|---|---|
Level of education or occupation | Master’s degree | 166 |
PhD | 189 | |
Faculty member | 47 | |
Age (years old) | Under 30 | 171 |
31–40 | 170 | |
Over 40 | 61 | |
Gender | Male | 244 |
Female | 158 | |
Marital status | Single | 114 |
Married | 288 | |
Province | Mazandaran | 119 |
Tehran | 140 | |
Qom | 78 | |
Semnan | 65 |
To measure transparent governance based on the teachings of Nahj al-Balagha, the 58-item questionnaire developed by Rastgar and Mousavi Davoudi (
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values.
Indicator or variable | Items | Cronbach’s alpha value |
---|---|---|
Religious transparency | 8 | 0.77 |
Behavioural transparency | 28 | 0.85 |
Structural transparency | 15 | 0.82 |
Religious transparency | 7 | 0.73 |
Ability | 14 | 0.80 |
Benevolence | 8 | 0.79 |
Honesty | 7 | 0.76 |
To determine the validity of the questionnaire, confirmatory factor analysis was also used. According to
Validity assessment of research tools.
Fitness indices | Values |
---|---|
Chi-square or degree of freedom | 2.6574 |
0.0000 | |
Root mean square error of approximation | 0.0065 |
Goodness-of-fit index | 0.0091 |
Adjusted goodness-of-fit index | 0.0090 |
The structural equation modelling (SEM) outcomes are illustrated in
Results of research hypothesis testing.
Number | Hypothesis | Path coefficient | Result | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Transparent governance based on the teachings of Nahj al-Balagha → Social trust | 0.58 | 5.54 | Confirmed |
Structural equation modelling.
A path coefficient of higher than 0 indicates a positive relationship between research variables, and a
This study investigated the role of transparent governance based on the teachings of Nahj al-Balagha in creating social trust among Iranian Muslim citizens in 2022. The study results demonstrated that transparent governance as per the teachings of Nahj al-Balagha has a significant positive effect on social trust (path coefficient = 0.58,
Of note, governance is the art of steering societies and organisations. There is no right answer regarding whether the word ‘steering’ is fitting or not, but no doubt governance involves interactions between structures, processes and practices that ascertain how power is exercised, decisions are made and citizens and other stakeholders express their opinions. Governance is not far off from power, relationships and accountability; that is, those who can be influential and make decisions are held accountable. Good governance and human rights are mutually reinforcing. In this way, strengthening democratic institutions, improving service delivery, establishing rule of law, fighting corruption, encouraging public participation and boosting accountability among officials all help in promoting human rights.
To evaluate GG, there is a need to shed light on the relationship between what is done (i.e. activities, decisions and measures) and what is planned to be achieved (viz. goals and values). In fact, GG requires finding tools that are relevant and appropriate to values. For this purpose, looking for the features that explain sources and processes, and above all include the results and effects, is of importance. Good governance is a means to achieve one or more desirable goals. Its indicators are further identified by determining proper instruments and desired outcomes.
To meet their needs, human beings in any society have to establish relationships with others. Any communication accordingly demands prerequisites, including trust, for being guaranteed along with its effectiveness. Trust is a fundamental element in maintaining social life and order, as well as generating bonds between members in any society. Literally, the term ‘trust’ means reliance, confidence and belief, and connotatively, it is a kind of faith and belief in something ahead. Trust can thus help express a perception and mental expectation of the people about the future and the future actions of a person, an institution and a social relationship. The principles of trust can also form social capital, because trust moves people toward finding a desire to participate and interact positively with others, and the networks of social relationships are shaped through which human needs in social life are met, and the social energy necessary for strengthening the society is obtained. Trust is the main factor affecting unity, cohesion, stability and order. From this point of view, trust can be in a dual relationship with society; on the one hand, it is created through the interaction of people with others. In other words, trust is the product of lived experiences in any society. On the other hand, higher social trust creates a more cohesive society. Against this background, the level of social trust is significantly correlated with the level of development and economic equality. Mainly, more developed societies with higher levels of social justice show a higher level of social trust. At the same time, trust is an extremely individual concept; that is, it is formed in one’s mind, but it is also an extremely social concept, caused by the experience of interactions with others. When someone gains a positive experience from others in interpersonal and intragroup communications, it becomes more possible to build trust and strengthen it. Accordingly, trust requires a trustee and trustor and their inter-relationships. In conclusion, trust ends if each party violates the rules of this relationship and its effectiveness to satisfy others’ needs.
Abbas Ali Rastgar, Rekurd Sarhang Maghdid, Iskandar Muda, and Seyed Mehdi Mousavi Davoudi contributed to this article.
The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.
A.A.R. contributed to the supervision, editing and conceptualisation; S.M.M.D. contributed to the writing of the original draft; R.S.M. and I.M. were responsible for investigation.
This article followed all ethical standards for carrying out research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data is available on request from the corresponding author.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.