This study aims to analyse the perspectives of Muslim students on pluralism and freedom of religion, as well as the worship place establishments, holy book assessments and practices of other religions. This study uses a cohort-based quantitative method through data collection, interviews and documentation, which involves 1300 respondents from 13 state Islamic higher education institutions in Indonesia. In order to collect information from the respondents, this research uses an online questionnaire. It also conducts online interviews to directly confirm the information obtained from the questionnaire. This research discovers that Muslim students are tolerant in accepting plurality and religious diversity, yet intolerant in the holy book assessment, place of worship establishments and practices of other religions.
This study contributes towards developing a persuasive concept concerning religious moderation, commenced by analysing socio-theological perspectives of highly educated society.
A number of Muslim students from state Islamic colleges in Indonesia were reported to be involved in some intolerant actions against minority groups (Muryana
In this light, this research attempts to answer the following question: Is the intolerant acts and persecution against minority groups conducted by Muslim students related to their religious perspectives? Human perspectives heavily influence their action whether in creating or solving a problem (Gross
The relationship between religion and highly educated society has been studied by various scholars. Dawsey (
Simut (
Brown (
Meanwhile, Khandai, Bajpai and Agarwal (
Stevenson (
Jiang (
Sarapli (
Agang (
The studies mentioned here connect religion and the higher education system as a socio-education phenomenon (Padilla, Acosta & Perozo
This study fulfills the research gap left from the studies mentioned here, which is the analysis of Muslim students’ perspectives on plurality, religious differences, religious practice diversity and holy books, which factually affect their participations in a number of religious intolerance cases. This study contributes towards developing a persuasive concept concerning religious moderation, commenced by analysing socio-theological perspectives of highly educated society. It demonstrably outlines their perspectives apropos of the elements of religious moderation in order to assist the mitigation of socio-theological catastrophe caused by
The following three questions steer the discourse in this study:
What are Muslim students’ perspectives on plurality and religious differences?
What are Muslim students’ perspectives on the establishment of worship places of other religions?
What are Muslim students’ perspectives on the holy books and religious practices of other religions?
The study is an observational–analytical study that uses a cohort design as a particular study case in the form of sociological interpretation (Woźniak, Kossakowski & Nosal
The qualitative data are supported by the result of a quantitative online survey conducted towards students of state Islamic higher education institutions on Java and Kalimantan. This study conducted the online survey for 10 months, from February to November 2020. The locations of this survey are 13 state Islamic higher education institutions on Java and Kalimantan, namely UIN Bandung, UIN Jakarta, UIN Jogyakarta, UIN Semarang, UIN Surabaya, UIN Malang, UIN Banten, IAIN Cirebon, IAIN Pekalongan, IAIN Salatiga, UIN Antasari, IAIN Samarinda and IAIN Palangkaraya. The reason behind determining these 13 institutions as the research objects is because all of them include religious moderation as a strategic issue in their institutional governance, missions and educational process.
The quantitative data only allow some superficial insights (Merriam & Grenier
The total number of population in this study is 217 000 students, which is further categorised into two, viz. students from study programmes concerning Islamic studies and students from general study programmes. The final sample number of 1300 questionnaires is based on a stratified sampling from a database of 1400 questionnaires. The surveyed respondents were randomly and proportionally selected to represent 13 state Islamic higher education institutions. Respondent profile has two categories, namely sex and field of study. Meanwhile, there are two categories of colleges: State Islamic University (UIN) and State Islamic School (IAIN).
The determination of sample number used the application called Calculator Sample Size, in order to obtain a margin error of 3% and confidence level around 97%.
The data collection instrument used was an online questionnaire via an application named Open Access Digital Research (OPADR), an online survey application designed by the Library Center of UIN Bandung. The survey category is a closed questionnaire, in which the questionnaire already provides answer choices for the respondents. The total number of questions in the questionnaire is 13. The questionnaire was distributed through WhatsApp and Telegram groups and e-mails of the respondents and coordinated by a number of volunteers from among lecturers, librarians and students.
The data collection of this survey used an electronic questionnaire where the data are collected through giving a series of written questions to the respondents to be answered in the form of online polling.
There are three reasons in determining online polling as the data collection technique. Firstly, the circumstances during the COVID-19 pandemic only allow the data collection to be conducted online. Secondly, online polling is more convenient apropos of reaching the target respondents. Thirdly, online polling electronically reads the response percentage from the respondents instantly. As for confirmation and further inquiry are conducted through direct interviews via e-mail, phone, WhatsApp call and Telegram.
This study uses descriptive statistics to illustrate the fundamental characteristics of its data. The received questionnaires are sorted by college, region, sex and field of study. The answer data collected from it are tabulated to obtain the percentage according to every question in order to make description and conclusion. In the tabulation process, this study did not use a linear statistical analysis, but a descriptive statistical technique. Descriptive statistics allow researchers to measure and illustrate the fundamental characteristic of a data set. Consequently, descriptive statistics function was used as the pointer for data analysis that enable researchers to manage, simplify and summarise data. This study used a cross tabulation or two-way tabulation. It shows proportion units with different values for each of the two variables or proportion cells that represent the nature of respondents concerning religious perspectives.
For this theme, the question asked to the respondents is, in your opinion is plurality the will of God? A total of 715 respondents agreed that plurality is the will of God, while 325 respondents disagreed and the other 260 respondents abstained by showing their unsureness (see
The perspective on plurality as the will of God.
The chart in
Twenty-five percent of the respondents reject the idea of plurality as the will of God even when it manifests as a social reality. In the perspective of these respondents, plurality is an illegal social entity. They regard religious plurality as having relation with human intervention for certain evil purposes. They form a pattern of homogeneity and radicalism (Burley
On the other hand, 20% of the respondents provide an unsure answer between plurality as the will of God or the opposite. These respondents choose a neutral position that creates an assumption that they are between supporters of homogeneity and supporters of plurality. Unfortunately, this study has not succeeded in estimating the silent data, which could demonstrate whether the neutral group accept or reject plurality. Information gathered from further inquiries towards 63 neutral respondents reveal that their reason of neutrality is the fear of being wrong, which may implicate the validity of their faith. They assess that the subject question is sensitive to their belief.
When the respondents are specifically asked apropos of religious uniformity, the majority asserts that humanity does not have to be uniformed in terms of faith (see
The uniformity of faith.
The survey result reveals that the majority of the respondents has colleagues from different religions. A total of 353 respondents admit to have formed friendship with people with different faith, whereas 144 respondents state that they do not have friends with different faith and the rest 10 respondents abstain (see
Friendships with people from other religions.
Based on the given data distribution, interactions between respondents and people from different religions are common. It leads to a presumption that those interactions may influence their perspectives towards various aspects. The contiguity with people with different faith induces a complex effect within themselves (Hermisson, Gochyyev & Wilson
The perception towards people from other religions.
The percentage in
In the concern of evaluating the rightness of other religions, the majority of the respondents perceive that other religions are wrong. The number amounts to 527 respondents (see
Evaluation towards other religions.
The number of respondents who abstain in this topic is relatively high, viz. 416 students. Based on the confirmation process and further inquiries, these respondents argues that the question concerns the realm of
The given data distribution confirms the findings of other scholars who proclaim that when an individual accepts a particular religion or belief system, consequently he will only accept the rightness of his own religion and reject others (Hofmeister
The distribution of respondents’ institutions.
Variable | Category | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Java Island | UIN | 7 | 70.0 |
IAIN | 3 | 30.0 | |
Total | 10 | 100.0 | |
Kalimantan Island | UIN | I | 33.3 |
IAIN | 2 | 66.7 | |
Total | 3 | 100.0 |
UIN, State Islamic University; IAIN, State Islamic School.
Sample distribution based on sex and field of study.
Variable | Category | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 520 | 40 |
Female | 780 | 60 | |
Total | 1300 | 100 | |
Field of study | Islamic studies | 962 | 74 |
General studies | 338 | 26 | |
Total | 1300 | 100 |
The answer categories for the topic of assessment on the practices of other religions splits into three: believing, unbelieving and abstain. The answer with the highest frequency from respondents is that they do not believe in the practices of other religions. The percentage shows that 53.1% of the respondents claim that the practices of other religions are wrong after having been asked. Only 13.9% of the respondents answer that the practices are right, while the number of people who abstain amounts to 33% (see
Assessment toward other religions’ practices.
Category | Frequency | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Believing | 181 | 13.9 |
Unbelieving | 691 | 53.1 |
Abstain | 428 | 33.0 |
The findings validate that intolerance is still thriving in society. Few members of society attempt to understand other religions in terms of their teachings; hence, they lack the instrument necessary to assess other religions objectively. The right or wrong assessment towards other religions does not stem from objective knowledge but assumptions and stereotypes (Strübind, Joachim & Henning
The next data demonstrate that 56% of the respondents agree with the establishment of other religions’ places of worship in their neighborhood, while 41% of the respondents disagree and 13% abstain (see
Attitude toward the establishment of worship places of other religions.
This subject of the survey has a difference between the respondents and their responses. The total number of respondents decreases to 1146 students, while the responses are stable in which every question is answered completely and every answer can be confirmed. The confirmation and further inquiries towards respondents on Java are selected randomly based on regional representations, viz. the western part of Java, the central and the eastern. On the other hand, the confirmation with respondents on Kalimantan is conducted based on census as there are only three participating state Islamic higher education institutions.
The survey result provides two answer categories concerning the holy books of other religions, a certain answer and an uncertain answer. The certain answers are further divided into two clusters: the
Evaluation toward the holy books of other religions.
After confirmations and further inquiries by connecting the answer with Islamic teachings, which compel its followers to believe all the holy books revealed by God, there appear two arguments from the respondents. Firstly, the respondents who claim other holy books are correct stem their argument from verse 385 of the second chapter of the Quran, Al-Baqarah. Secondly, the respondents who claim them to be wrong argue against the purity of other holy books.
Based on the data obtained through confirmations and further inquiries, it becomes apparent that 4 out of 185 respondents associate their assessments of other holy books with their political tendencies. This revelation corroborates the finding of several scholars of religious behaviours who associate religious conflicts with political interests. The assessments on the rightness of holy books are often manipulated by political elites in order to attain their main goal, that is to maintain their political standing (Maoz & Henderson
Based on the result of data processing and analysis, this study possesses distinctive aspects compared with previous studies of the same field. This study discovers that the whole constituents of religious moderation are not apparent in the religious perspectives of Muslim students. They are moderate only apropos of plurality and religious liberty and on the contrary are especially radical and intolerant towards the issues of worship place establishments, holy book assessments and practices of other religions. Despite their learning institutions incorporate religious moderation as their visions, yet it fails to make an impact towards the religious perspectives and attitudes of Muslim students. The students have some radical tendencies that hinder moderate behaviours to manifest as their religious reality. This finding also confirms that knowledge does not influence and control the attitudes and behaviours of Muslim students. They tend to be controlled by doctrines and beliefs (Suntana & Tresnawaty
This study surveys the religious perspectives of Muslim students at 13 state Islamic higher education institutions. The result reveals that: (1) the Muslim students are tolerant in perceiving plurality and religious differences, (2) the majority of Muslim students is intolerant towards the establishment of worship places of other religions, (3) the Muslim students regard the practices and holy books of other religions as wrong. The unreserved acceptance of Muslim students towards plurality and religious liberty arises from knowledge evaluation, whereas intolerance towards places of worship establishment, holy books and practices of other religions arises from faith evaluation. Aside from that, another conclusion comes into sight based on the answer types and models of the respondents in this study, namely the category of religious perspectives seems to be fundamentalist to the dominant religious orientation.
The authors would like to acknowledge the Main Library of UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung, Indonesia, which has provided application facilities for collecting research data and to all respondents who have responded well in this research process. In addition, they would like to thank their colleagues who have volunteered to distribute online questionnaires to respondents through their social media groups.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
I.S. contributed to research conceptualisation, data processing, formal analysis and manuscript writing. B.T. contributed in formulating methods, investigation and the validation of research data.
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati Research Ethics Committee (No. B-Un.05/Ak/VI/2022).
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
The interview data for this research is not publicly available because of the sensitivity of the research. The participants did not grant specific permission to deposit the data in a public repository.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.