Increasing acceptance of women into the workplace has altered the traditional home keeping roles. As women are traditionally expected to handle the homestead in Nigeria, their absence from home because of workplace engagement had left the home unattended to. To fill this vacuum, most families resorted to the appointment of domestic workers. Tade and Aderinto (2012:531) stated that ‘the pretence for demanding domestic workers is workload created by role strain’. They further said that because a working woman would withdraw from home and child care, ‘hiring domestic servants becomes a safety valve to help muddle through multiple roles’ (Tade & Aderinto 2012:532). Their data revealed that ‘63.6% of working women hired domestic servants to perform household chores/domestic work/washing/cleaning of the house, while 24.1% employed domestic servants to care for their children’ (Tade & Aderinto 2012:532). These statistics show a prevalence in the use of domestic servants in contemporary Nigeria.

Those serving as domestic workers are mostly under-aged (which makes them to be regarded as cheap labour). This is corroborated by Awosusi and Adebo (2012:271) who states that those usually employed as domestic workers are young people ‘whose age can be as low as 6’, and it is also important to know that most of the people employed to manage the homes are usually young girls (Orji & Nworgu 2019:254), thus increasing the girl-child employment cases. Amazingly, Nigeria has about 15 000 000 working children (Ngele 2012:184–185), a large percentage of which are domestic workers.

The current state of domestic workers in Nigeria raised twin issues: child labour and girl child employment. The International Labour Organization (ILO) (2004:16) defined child labour as ‘work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development’. Odukoya (2009) identifies six forms of child labour, namely, agricultural, street trading, domestic servitude, pawns and bonded labour, child begging and child marriage. Causes of child labour include demographic conditions, income insecurity and poverty. The dangers of child labour to the children led Nigeria to enact the Children’s Right Act of 2003 (CRA), which prohibited subjecting anyone under 18 years of age to any form of employment or forced or exploitative labour. The ineffectiveness of this enactment, however, can be seen in the staggering number of children involved in child labour, and the fact that only 28 out of the 36 states of the federation have adopted the CRA as a state law.

As stated earlier, the domestic workers and many of their masters are Christians. The fact that the majority of domestic workers are Christians is substantiated by Orji and Nworgu (2019:255) who showed that 50% of domestic workers are Christians. This notwithstanding, the relationship between the two classes is not always palatable. There are cases of negative behaviour from both sides. This article is aimed at determining the message of the writer to the two classes in Ephesians 6:5–9 and recommends the same to the two classes in Nigeria so that they would be beacons to the society.

The reason for analysing the cultural setting of Ephesians to understand this passage is cited by Dudrey (1999):

In the same vein, Lovik (1995:49) states that ‘understanding the cultural and literary context of the biblical writers sheds a deal of light on the meaning of biblical texts’.

The presence of slaves in the Graeco-Roman society was a daily fact (Cuffel 1966:323). Paraphrasing Aristotle, Cuffel (1966:323) says, ‘slavery, like marriage, parenthood, or citizenship was one of the common personal relationships, and of these, it was the least important’. In the Roman society, it is believed that slaves may have constituted between 25% and 40% of the population (Swindoll 2015:294). The presence of slaves in the society notwithstanding, ‘there was no wholesale condemnation of slavery. It was too much the commonplace, too much a part of the daily fabric of life’ (Cuffel 1966:329).

To maintain order in the society, the Romans had their house codes to govern the relationship of the various classes within the household and the society by extension. Dudrey (1999:27) identified the household codes of the first-century Mediterranean world as the socio-historical setting for Ephesians 6:5–9. In recognition of Paul’s use of the household codes, some scholars appeal to Paul’s reference to God as ‘the great paterfamilias, the patriarch over every family of humanity’. Schnackenburg (2001) also admits that:

He goes on to say, however, that ‘it is clear that the author has developed and deepened the instruction’ (Schnackenburg 2001:241), an assertion that is important to the understanding of the passage and shall be examined later.

In situating the code Paul used, most scholars assume a Roman cultural matrix, household codes, which however can be regarded as universal as Lovik (1995:51) says, ‘ancient household codes had already been a rhetorical device used by ancient writers’. It has been observed that the threefold division of the household codes adopted by Aristotle formed the pattern for the Haustafeln (Balch 1981:29), and these are husband and wives, fathers and children, and masters and slaves. This article is concerned with the master and slave relationship.

The fundamental concept that guides the master and slave relationship is that slaves were seen as properties and were treated as such (Gombis 2005:329). In other words, slaves ‘were not considered as persons with rights but as objects over which their master had the right of disposal’ (Schnackenburg 2001:241).

For a clearer picture, there is the need to examine what slaves would properly pass through. Without mincing words, ‘harsh treatment was synonymous with slavery’ (Knapp 2011:115). Explaining the harsh treatment, Knapp (2011) mentions abuses. These include physical abuse, which is adjudged as ‘the most frequent and violent form of degradation’ (Knapp 2011:115). An example is the beating of slaves. Knapp (2011) said the purpose of beating was usually:

Knapp (2011) describes the ‘combination of physical and psychological abuse’ as the worst type of abuse and sexual abuse is seen as psychological abuse. Sexual abuse could involve rape but ‘the casual deeply normal assumption by slaves and free alike that slaves were available as sexual objects meant that overt violence often was not involved’ (Knapp 2011:118). Maybe, the general acceptability of the practice made ‘nothing in the New Testament speaks out against this sexual abuse’ and surprisingly ‘rabbinical literature describes when it is all right to have sex with one’s female slave’ and to worsen the situation, ‘male slaves were also the subject of their master’s sexual ravishing’ (Knapp 2011:118).

This gloomy picture notwithstanding, the treatment of slaves depends on the temperament of their owners. Another factor that can erase the terrible treatment of slaves is their economic value. Swindoll (2015:294) says, ‘because good slaves were a valuable investment, masters gained more from treating them well and keeping them healthy than from neglecting or harming them’.

Despite the gap between the 1st-century Mediterranean world in which Ephesians was written and the contemporary days, the basis of this comparison lies in the fact that ‘in the first century, many slaves were akin to domestic servants – actual members of a household’ (Swindoll 2015:292). As the relationship between masters and domestic workers in contemporary Nigeria is the focus of this article, the message of Paul to the masters in Ephesus would be relevant to the Nigerian situation.

In the Graeco-Roman period, five major ways have been identified as sources for slaves:

Fee (2002), however, opines that the major source of slaves is economic need. This is explained to mean ‘those who voluntarily sold themselves into slavery were a larger category’ (Harris 1999:62). This is a major similarity with the Nigerian situation as most of the domestic servants are those who have been sold into servanthood by either their parents or themselves. The domestic workers in Nigeria are mostly children under the age of 18 years who are mostly girls. It has been said that in Nigeria, there are over 15 million children engaged as domestic workers (Ngele 2012:184–185). It had been ascertained that the use of domestic workers is prevalent in Nigeria as it was in Pauline days. It has also been ascertained that most of those who own domestic workers are Christians. The respondents’ demography of the research conducted by Okafor and Amayo (2006) shows that of a total of 101 respondents, 83 (82.1%) are Christians. This implies that those who use domestic workers in Nigeria are mostly Christians (it has been stated earlier that the percentage of Muslim women working in Nigeria are few compared to Christians), and this thus means that the message of this passage is applicable to the Nigerian situation.

The institution of slavery seems acceptable in the Mediterranean world. Although it was clear that there were many wrongs against the slaves, there were no criticisms of note against the institution available. Lincoln (1990:415) states that ‘no ancient government thought of abolishing the institution, and none of the slave rebellions had as its goal the abolition of slavery’. Westernmann (1955:215) says that slavery was accepted as part of the labour structure and was not seen as a problem. The church was not critical of the situation and ‘did not make any attempt at a fundamental change in their social status’ (Schnackenburg 2001:263). However, in Nigeria, although the institution is widespread, people speak against its ill. For example, no one grudges anyone for keeping a slave but maltreating a slave is always condemned. A Yoruba saying cited by Aduradola and Oyero (2015) says, ‘mo ti ri omo oba to deru ri, mo si ti ri iwofa to di olowo’. This proverb which literally in English reads ‘I have seen a prince become a slave and I have seen a pawn become a wealthy man’ is used to warn wealthy people or slave owners of the predictableness of the wheel of fortune and caution them to treat their servants properly. These warnings and legal statutes from the government notwithstanding, masters still largely maltreat their domestic servants.

The status of slaves in the Roman society was the lowest of the low because they were regarded little more than human res, that is, a thing or object and consequently not regarded as a person but a possession (Burks 2008:11–12). This is akin to Kirchschlaeger’s opinion that ‘slaves were treated like objects; they had no rights; they did not even possess the right to life’ (Kirchschlaeger 2016:68). Consequently, the welfare of slaves was not good. For example (Glancy 2011):

The situation in Nigeria is not dissimilar as (Charles 2001):

The research study by Awosusi and Adebo (2012) reveals more information on this. On living condition, they reveal that most domestic workers do not sleep in decent locations like their employers and families as some sleep in the garage, kitchen, guestrooms or boys’ quarters (Awosusi and Adebo 2012:275). The research reveals that 68% of their respondents indicate that their food is of low quality compared with their employers as they do not eat the same food as them. As far as they are concerned, ‘the living condition of the domestic servants is poor’ (Awosusi & Adebo 2012:275). Domestic workers ‘undergo physical abusive acts, including rape of girls who suffer emotional torture in the homes of their employers’ (Orji & Nworgu 2019:252). Jilomes (2017) also has this to say:

Indicting Christian domestic servant employers, Jilomes (2017) says:

Although focusing on child domestic workers, another good situation report on the plight of domestic servants in Nigeria is from Ngele and Ikechukwu (2012), who opine that:

Another unpalatable dimension in the life of slaves in both Pauline and contemporary times is the sexual availability of female slaves. In Pauline times, ‘it was so debased that the master was not the only one who had sexual rights to his slave, he could permit his friends and family members’ (Finley 1980:96).

This subsection would be lopsided if there is no comment from how slaves also kick back at their masters, especially if they think they are being maltreated. In the Mediterranean days, slave revolt was not uncommon. Finley (1980:106) states that slaves were not used in Rome as soldiers because of the danger of a slave revolt. Dudrey (1999:30) confirms that ‘numerous rebellions occurred. The revolt of Spartacus was one of the three major Roman slaves’ wars’. Although Nigeria has not witnessed (and may never witness slave) revolts, there had been cases of maids hitting back at their masters. PM News of 05 August 2019 reports the case of a 14-year-old housemaid that scarred a two-year-old boy with beating and also gave him his faeces to eat.

Although Ephesians 6:5–9 is the focal passage, the wider context of this passage is the whole of Ephesians. The writer has structured Ephesians as follows:

The body of the epistle is divisible into two parts: the indicative and the paraenetic sections. In the indicative section (2:1–3:21), the writer espouses how God turned sinners into saints through faith (the incidences that took place among Jews) and he followed this by extending the grace to the Gentiles, consequently removing the barrier that divided the two (i.e. Jews and Gentiles), making them fellow citizens in God’s household (Brown 2016:226).

In the paraenetic section (4:1–6:20), the section to which Ephesians 6:5–9 belongs, the writer explains the implications of God’s plan: the directive to live a life worthy of God’s calling. Consequently, the new humanity cannot continue to live according to the old pattern (Brown 2016:227). The paraenetic section can also be subdivided into the life expected within the Christian community and that expected within the household. Ephesians 5:21/22–6:9 is that dedicated to the life within the household and Ephesians 6:5–9 is the third section of this paraenetic section. Having seen the immediate context of the passage within the epistle, one can now continue to the passage itself.

Larkin’s (2009) fascinating description of this passage forms the ground structure for the analysis of the passage. He says it:

Although the messages above seem like a tacit approval of the institution of servanthood, there is a need to face reality like the writer of Ephesians did before the final application. Although the desire is to eradicate the use of children as domestic workers, all efforts to date have not yielded the desired result. For example, suggestions from writers range from the establishment of Ministry of Children, eradication of poverty and hawking (Agusiobo 2018:779–780; Femi 2011:120; Oluyemi & Yinusa 2016:56), and all these have not reduced the number of children in employment. Apart from this, if we stop these children from their employment, what would happen to them? Would this secure their future or endanger it? Therefore, the church might be better using the Ephesian initiative: transform the institution rather than call for its eradication (Lincoln 1990:428; Schnackenburg 2001:263).

Most of the families where domestic workers are used are full of negative behaviours. The message here to the workers is that whatever their situation, they must work sincerely and with integrity, viewing themselves as accountable to the Lord. They must also avoid negative behaviours through which they think they take vengeance. In other words, punishment of the children they are supposed to care for needed to be stopped and they must become caring and love the family they are serving.

The masters, however, must take these domestic workers as if they are their own children. The cases where their children do not take part in house chores must be stopped, and if possible, these servants could be enlisted in schools according to their level. They must be well clothed, and all forms of abuses should also stop. To do this, a shift in mentality must take place; they should also change the property mentality they have. This is only possible by living a life of faith. If they do these, the life of the domestic workers would also change for good, and they would also turn a new leaf.

As the larger proportion of domestic workers and their owners in Nigeria are Christians as it had been ascertained above, coupled with the fact that Christians are expected to be the light to the world, a change in the attitude of Christian masters of domestic servants would resonate far and wide and may eventually change the attitude of non-Christian owners of domestic servants. The church has a role to play in this. The clergy could no longer play the blind fool to the harsh treatment their members mete out to their domestic servants. There should be conscientious teachings in this regard as well as guided counseling to ensure that changes take place. As the Haustafel ‘presents a comprehensive vision of the eschatological New Humanity – the new creation politeia – realized under the conditions of this present fallen age’ (Gombis 2005:322), it is the duty of every Christian to bring the new humanity into existence where they domiciled.