The article examines the interpretation of the Scripture in Byzantine hymnography during the Great Lent. Some notable recent contributions focus on Andrew of Crete’s and Romanos the Melodist’s compositions, illustrating the hymnographic way of understanding the Scriptures. The author of this study presents a selection of stanzas from hymns of the Triodion that refer to the trees of Paradise. Hymnography perceives the trees in Genesis 2–3 in direct connection with the cross. Only rarely is the tree of life a metaphor for Jesus, as the shadow of the tree of the cross is seldom a metaphor for protection. Another interesting aspect in relation to hymnography is the fact that it represents a type of intertextual exegesis of biblical texts. Hymnographers interpret passages from Genesis by using texts from Psalms, Prophets and especially from the New Testament, combining images and biblical texts in the depiction of liturgical moments.
Compared with previous research, this article discusses some rare hymnographic interpretations (shadow of the cross; cross in the middle of the earth). The analysis accentuates that the hymnic approach to the Scripture is a form of intertextual exegesis.
The Eastern Orthodox hymnography can be viewed as a form of interpretation of the Bible. The use of the Scripture in worship reveals how believers understand biblical texts in the act of worshipping God. Perhaps we are not mistaken if we say that, in the first millennium, Christians in the Eastern Church knew the Bible more from ritual than from reading it. Reading the Holy Scriptures was the privilege of a minority including clergy, scholars and wealthy Christians (Wallraff
During liturgy, the Old Testament was accessible for ordinary Christians in the form of biblical readings. If the text of the Gospels and Epistles was read almost in its entirety during a liturgical year, only certain passages from the Old Testament were read, as is the case in today’s Orthodox church service. In addition to these readings, iconography has also augmented the knowledge of the Scripture (Miller
For, never has any one of the many indifferent persons gone away easily holding in mind either an apostolic or prophetic message, but they do chant the words of the psalms, even in the home, and they spread them around in the market place … (trans. Way
In this article, some Byzantine stanzas used during the Great Lent that refer to Genesis 2–3 are analysed. Research on how Byzantine hymnography uses biblical texts is a relatively recent undertaking (Bucur
The author has grouped the stanzas that are analysed according to recurring themes and motives in the Triodion – the service book used during the Great Lent in the Eastern Church. Because liturgical texts on the trees in Genesis 2–3 are numerous, the author has selected some stanzas that are suggestive for these themes. So as to make reference easier, liturgical texts have been numbered as T1, T2 … T13. The English translation of the texts is rendered after The Lenten Triodion (Mary & Ware
The trees in the Garden of Eden are mentioned in chapters 2 and 3 of Genesis. The relevant passages listed below are extracted from the
Καὶ ἐξανέτειλεν ὁ Θεὸς ἔτι ἐκ τῆς γῆς πᾶν ξύλον ὡραῖον εἰς ὅρασιν, καὶ καλὸν εἰς βρῶσιν, καὶ τὸ ξύλον τῆς ζωῆς, ἐν μέσῳ τοῦ Παραδείσου, καὶ τὸ ξύλον τοῦ εἰδέναι γνωστὸν καλοῦ καὶ πονηροῦ. (ΤΡΙΩΔΙΟΝ
And God again made to grow out of the earth every tree (ξύλον) beautiful to the sight and good for food; and the tree of life in the midst of the garden,
Καὶ ἐνετείλατο Κύριος ὁ Θεὸς τῷ Ἀδάμ, λέγων· Ἀπὸ παντὸς ξύλου, τοῦ ἐν τῷ Παραδείσῳ, βρώσει φαγῇ, ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ ξύλου τοῦ γινώσκειν καλὸν καὶ πονηρόν, οὐ φάγεσθε ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ· ᾗ δ’ ἂν ἡμέρα φάγητε ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ, θανάτῳ ἀποθανεῖσθε. (ΤΡΙΩΔΙΟΝ
And Lord God commanded Adam saying, ʻFrom every tree of the garden you may eat for food; but from the tree of knowing good and evil, you shall not eat from it; in whatever day you eat from it, you shall die by deathʼ. (Author’s translation)
Καὶ εἶδεν ἡ γυνή, ὅτι καλὸν τὸ ξύλον εἰς βρῶσιν, καὶ ὅτι ἀρεστὸν τοῖς ὀφθαλμοὶς ἰδεῖν, καὶ ὡραῖόν ἐστι τοῦ κατανοῆσαι, καὶ λαβοῦσα ἡ γυνὴ ἀπὸ τοῦ καρποῦ αὐτοῦ, ἔφαγε, καὶ ἔδωκε καὶ τῷ ἀνδρὶ αὐτῆς μετ’ αὐτῆς, καὶ ἔφαγον. (ΤΡΙΩΔΙΟΝ
And the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasing for the eyes to see and that it was beautiful to contemplate, and taking from its fruit, the woman
Καὶ εἶπεν ὁ Θεός· Ἰδού, Ἀδὰμ γέγονεν ὡς εἷς ἐξ ἡμῶν, τοῦ γινώσκειν καλὸν καὶ πονηρόν, καὶ νῦν μή ποτε ἐκτείνῃ τὴν χεῖρα αὐτοῦ, καὶ λάβῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ ξύλου τῆς ζωῆς, καὶ φάγῃ, καὶ ζήσεται εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα. (ΤΡΙΩΔΙΟΝ
And Lord God said, ʻSee, Adam has become like one of us, knowing good and evil. And now perhaps he might stretch out his hand and take from the tree of life and eat, and he will live foreverʼ. (Author’s translation)
Christological interpretations of the two trees in Paradise are widespread in the writings of the Church Fathers (Charalampidis
The contrast between the tree of damnation (the tree of knowledge in Eden) and the tree of salvation (the cross) was a favourite theme during the Great Lent. It was in this time of the year that John Chrysostom preached on the Book of Genesis. He stated that the tree of salvation, that is, the cross, destroyed the evils brought by the other tree (
Byzantine hymnographers also assert the connection between the trees of Paradise and the cross of the Saviour. The cross is called ʻtreeʼ. Both the trees and the cross are referred to as ʻwoodʼ. The common denominator of the two trees of Eden and the cross is the substance of which they are made: wood. In both Hebrew and Greek, עֵץ (ʿēṣ) and ξύλον mean both tree and wood as substance (Liddell et al.
Presumably the hymnographers commented on the connection between the wood of the cross and the trees of Eden in view of the fact that, since the 4th century, there was a ritual of honouring fragments of the True Cross in Jerusalem and in Constantinople (Frolow
Come, Adam and Eve, our first father and mother, who fell from the choir on high through the envy of the murderer of man, when of old with bitter pleasure ye tasted from the tree in Paradise. See, the Tree of the Cross, revered by all, draws near! Run with haste and embrace it joyfully, and cry to it with faith: O precious Cross, thou art our succour; partaking of thy fruit, we have gained incorruption; we are restored once more to Eden, and we have received great mercy. (Mary & Ware
Pilate set up three crosses in the place of the Skull, two for the thieves, and one for the Giver of Life. Seeing Him, hell cried to those below: ‘O my ministers and powers! Who is this that has fixed a nail in my heart? A wooden spear has pierced me suddenly, and I am torn apart! Inwardly I suffer; anguish has seized my belly and my senses. My spirit trembles, and I am constrained to cast out Adam and his posterity! A tree brought them to my realm, but now the Tree of the Cross brings them back again to Paradise’. (Mary & Ware
Τρεῖς σταυροὺς ἐπήξατο ἐν Γολγοθᾶ ὁ Πιλᾶτος, δύο τοῖς λῃστεύσασι, καὶ ἕνα τοῦ Ζωοδότου, ὃν εἶδεν ὁ ᾍδης, καὶ εἶπε τοῖς κάτω· Ὦ λειτουργοί μου καὶ δυνάμεις μου τίς ὁ ἐμπήξας ἧλον τῇ καρδίᾳ μου; ξυλίνῃ με λόγχῃ ἐκέντησεν ἄφνω καὶ διαρρήσομαι, τὰ ἔνδον μου πονῶ, τὴν κοιλίαν μου ἀλγῶ, τὰ αἰσθητήριά μου, μαιμάσσει τὸ πνεῦμά μου, καὶ ἀναγκάζομαι ἐξερεύξασθαι τὸν Ἀδὰμ καὶ τοὺς ἐξ Ἀδάμ, ξύλῳ δοθέντας μοι· ξύλον γὰρ τούτους εἰσάγει πάλιν εἰς τὸν Παράδεισον. (ΤΡΙΩΔΙΟΝ
Many stanzas develop the contrast between the tree of knowledge and the cross of Christ. Eating from the old tree resulted in the loss of Paradise. People became prisoners of hell (T2).
The 3rd Sunday of Lent is dedicated to the veneration of the cross, so that most of the stanzas revolve around this theme, starting with the Vespers celebrated on Saturday evening. The hymnographer uses dramatic procedures, addressing, in an imaginary dialogue, Adam and Eve, calling them to embrace the wood of the cross, to taste its fruit, to acquire the true Eden (T1).
T2 is identical to one of the hymns composed by Romanos the Melodist, the best-known representative of Byzantine hymnography of the 6th century (
… τίς ὁ ἐμπήξας ἧλον τῇ καρδίᾳ μου; … | |
τὴν κοιλίαν μου τὴν κοιλίαν μου ἀλγῶ, καὶ τὰ αἰσθητήρια τῆς καρδίας μου, μαιμάσσει ἡ ψυχή μου, | τὴν κοιλίαν μου ἀλγῶ, τὰ αἰσθητήριά μου, μαιμάσσει τὸ πνεῦμά μου, … |
σπαράσσεται ἡ καρδία μου, … (ed. Rahlfs |
|
Who is this that has fixed a nail in my heart? … | |
I am pained in my bowels, my bowels, and the sensitive powers of my heart; my soul is in great commotion, | I am pained in my bowels and my senses; my spirit is in great commotion … |
my heart is torn… (trans. Brenton |
In addition, the hymnographer combines the piercing motif with that of the womb of Hades, in which Adam and Eve were held. T2 uses terminology from Jonah 2:3 LXX for the womb of Hades (κοιλίας ᾅδου), and the motif of Hades’ greed is probably taken from Isaiah 5:14. The physiological and mental states described are both those of being stabbed and poisoned or intoxicated: abdominal pain (ʻI am pained in my bowelsʼ), confusion (ʻmy spirit is in great commotionʼ) and nausea (ʻI am constrained to cast out Adam and his posterityʼ). The images highlight the biblical culture and artistic refinement of Romanos. The Hades–Paradise dichotomy also reflects the contrast between the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and the cross, brought out even more distinctly by a wordplay: ʻThose given to me by a tree, a tree brings them back again to Paradiseʼ (ξύλῳ δοθέντας μοι ξύλον γὰρ τούτους εἰσάγει πάλιν εἰς τὸν Παράδεισον.).
Hail! Life-giving Cross, the fair Paradise of the Church, Tree of incorruption that brings us the enjoyment of the eternal glory…. (Mary & Ware
The Church has been revealed as a second Paradise, having within it, like the first Paradise of old, a tree of life, Thy Cross, O Lord. By touching it we share in immortality. (Mary & Ware
Thy Cross, O Lord, is holy, and brings healings to those who are in sickness through their sins. Venerating it, we fall before Thee: have mercy upon us. (Mary & Ware
I died through a tree, but I have found in thee a Tree of Life, O Cross of Christ! … (Mary & Ware
Ἐν ξύλῳ τεθνήξας ξύλον σε, εὕρηκα ζωῆς, χριστοφόρε Σταυρέ… (ΤΡΙΩΔΙΟΝ
The cross is associated or even identified with the tree of life in Paradise. Hymnic texts that reflect this theme are concentrated on the 3rd Sunday of Lent. Believers are called to worship the cross and shout: ʻRejoice, tree of life!ʼ (T3). The cross is personified and addressed in a manner that is specific for the saints in Byzantine hymns. ʻThe beautiful Paradise of the Churchʼ and ʻtree of incorruptionʼ are images derived from the biblical text in Genesis 2–3.
T4 uses typological exegesis. The Church is considered a second Paradise, whereas the first Paradise is not annulled. The tree of life in the first Paradise corresponds to the tree of the cross in the second Paradise. Adam failed to eat from the tree of life to overcome death, whereas every Christian received immortality by touching the wood of the cross. By ʻtouching the Crossʼ, T3 aims not only at the physical gesture, but probably also at the act of eating from the tree of cross, i.e., assimilating the saving sacrifice of the Son of God.
T5 affirms the healing power of the cross. Such an assertion is not directly derived from Genesis 2–3. In the author’s opinion, the hymnographer has in mind the image of the tree of life in Revelation 22:2, described as having healing leaves.
Gn 2:9: … the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, …
Gn 2:10: A river flows out of Eden to water the garden…
Rv 22:2: Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life…
Rv 22:2: On either side of the river is the tree of life…
In T6, the believer is invited to identify himself with Adam. The contrast is developed between the old tree of the knowledge of good and evil and the new tree of life, which is the cross. When tasting from the tree of knowledge, Adam ate from the fruit of death. Referring to the cross as ʻChrist bearingʼ (χριστοφόρε Σταυρέ), the hymnographer suggests that Christ is the fruit of the tree of the cross. Because Christ is the life (Jn 11:25; 14:6), the tree that bears him is the tree of life for Christians.
… And since the Cross is called, and indeed is, the Tree of Life, it is the very tree that was planted in the Garden of Eden. So it is fitting that the Holy Fathers have planted the Tree of the Cross in the middle of the Forty Day Fast to commemorate both Adam’s tasting of its sweet fruit and of its being taken from us in favor of the Tree of the Cross, tasting of which we shall in no way die, but will have even greater life. (Lenten Synaxarion
Thy side was pierced with a spear, and Thou hast poured upon us a fountain of forgiveness. Thou wast nailed to a tree, O Loving Lord, and Thou hast destroyed in the midst of the earth the condemnation that came through a tree. On this middle day of the Fast, we embrace the Wood of the Cross and sing the praises to Thy goodness. (Mary & Ware
In the middle of the Fast we see exalted in our midst the precious Cross, on which Thou wast lifted by Thine own choice in the middle of the earth, O Lord supreme in goodness and love. Through its veneration the world is sanctified, and the hosts of demons put to flight. (Mary & Ware
O Creator, Thou hast worked salvation in the midst of the earth, that we might be saved. Thou wast crucified of Thine own will upon the tree; and Eden, closed till then, was opened …. (Mary & Ware
A peculiar statement in hymnography is that the cross on which Jesus was crucified was in the middle of the earth, just as the tree of knowledge was in the middle of Eden (T7, T8). The idea is repeatedly stated in the 4th week of Lent, the week that liturgically marks the passage of the first half of Lent. Thus, in the midst of Lent, Christians are called to worship the cross set in the midst of all, as in the midst of the earth (T9). The biblical image of the trees in the middle of Eden is used in the synaxarion (T7) to explain why the cross is honoured in the middle of Lent.
The image of the cross as the centre of the earth has a symbolic dimension: Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross is the centre of Christian faith. However, this image may be derived from a tradition well attested in the first millennium: the belief that Golgotha once stood in the place of Eden, right in the middle of the earth.
In fact, after Constantine the Great built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, Jewish traditions related to the Temple were transferred over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Donner
In the 4th century, Cyril of Jerusalem recalls the tradition of Golgotha as the centre of the world in his lectures addressed to those preparing for baptism:
He stretched out His hands on the Cross, that He might embrace the ends of the world; for this Golgotha is the very centre of the earth. It is not my word, but it is a prophet who hath said,
It is noteworthy how both Cyril and T10 interpret one biblical text through another. The tradition that Golgotha is the centre of the world is based on Genesis 2:9, interpreted through Psalm 74, both texts being understood as referring to the crucifixion. Thus, within Psalm 74:12 Cyril and the hymnographer emphasise those elements that not only remind of Genesis 2, but also refer to Jesus’ crucifixion:
God worked … | God worked salvation | Christ worked salvation |
in the midst of the garden | in the midst of the earth | on Golgotha |
Also, as those who have travelled a long hard road, weighed down by the labours of their journey, in finding a shady tree, take their ease for a moment and then continue their journey rejuvenated, so now in this time of the Fast, this sorrowful and laborious journey, the Holy Fathers have planted the life-giving Cross, for our relief and refreshment, to encourage and make easier the labors that lie ahead. (Lenten Synaxarion
Shadow is used in the Bible as a metaphor to express protection (Is 49:2; Hs 14:8–9; Ps 36:8; 91:1). Because of the protection they claim to offer, kings are compared to trees (Ezk 31:3; Dn 4:12). Ironically, Jotham compares Abimelech to a thorn because he cannot provide shade, that is protection for the people of Shechem (Jdg 9:15).
Given this biblical metaphor, new associations between the cross and the trees of Paradise are possible. Byzantine hymnographers also imagined what the biblical text does not explicitly say: that the trees in the garden of Eden offered the first humans not only food but also shade to rest during the day. Hymnographers also transposed this image on the tree of the cross, which offers protection, rest and reinforcement during Lent (T11).
The 40 days of Lent might recall the hard 40-year journey of Israel through the desert. In Byzantine practice, the 40 days included Saturdays and Sundays, but excluded Lazarus Saturday, Palm Sunday and the Holy Week, considered as a special pre-paschal fast (Schmemann
Rejoice, fiery chariot of the Word;
Rejoice, Lady, living paradise,
holding in your midst the Lord, the Tree of Life!
His sweetness quickens all who eat with faith,
although they were enslaved to corruption. (Mary & Ware
Thou comest again, O Christ, to Judaea, which seeks to kill Thee the Tree of Life upon the Tree of the Cross; for it is Thy will to make immortal those who had been slain by eating from the tree. (Mary & Ware
Πρὸς Ἰουδαίαν Χριστέ, πάλιν ἔρχῃ ζητοῦσαν, τῆς ζωῆς σε τὸ ξύλον, διὰ ξύλου ἀνελεῖν, ποθῶν ἀθανατίσαι τοὺς τεθανατωμένους, τῇ διὰ ξύλου βρώσει. (ΤΡΙΩΔΙΟΝ
Several images from Genesis are used in T12: Paradise, the tree of life in the middle of Paradise, eating from the tree of knowledge. The hymnographer uses Biblical images as an allegory of the pregnant Virgin. Although in Byzantine iconography the Virgin is depicted holding the child Jesus in her arms, the hymnographer seems to refer here to the Annunciation. According to the revised Julian calendar, the Feast of Annunciation always falls during Lent. Virgin Mary, who receives the divine Logos in her womb, is at the centre of the celebration. The hymnographer depicts this scene by using the image of Paradise, in the middle of which is the tree of life. Thus, the tree of life is identified with Jesus. Furthermore, the allegory has an eucharistic symbolism: believers eat from Jesus – the tree, who grants life to those who were enslaved by the eating from the tree of knowledge.
T9 also uses the image of the tree of life as a metaphor for Jesus in a context that is dominated by images of death: Jesus accepts death so that those who have died by eating from the tree of knowledge become immortal.
Judaea appears in a negative image, desiring to kill the tree of life through the tree of the cross. In this respect, T13 bears resemblance to certain Byzantine hymns used during Holy Week. These are considered controversial as they contain anti-Jewish statements. Whether these hymns should be removed today from liturgy or they should be preserved is a discussion that still seems far from being concluded, as recent contributions have shown (Azar
On the contrary, we must note that T13 is read in the 6th week of Lent. The resurrection of Lazarus is to be commemorated some 3 days later, on the Saturday of this week. Consequently, the hymn refers to the biblical episode recounted in John 11, from which it paraphrases verses 7–8 and 25–26.
Then after this he said to the disciples, ʻLet us go to Judea again.ʼ The disciples said to him, ʻRabbi, the Jews were just now trying to stone you, and are you going there again?ʼ | ἔπειτα μετὰ τοῦτο λέγει τοῖς μαθηταῖς· Ἄγωμεν εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν πάλιν. λέγουσιν αὐτῷ οἱ μαθηταί· Ῥαββί, νῦν ἐζήτουν σε λιθάσαι οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι, καὶ πάλιν ὑπάγεις ἐκεῖ; |
Jesus said to her, ʻI am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even though they die, will live, and everyone who lives and believes in me will never die…ʼ. (NRSV) | εἶπεν αὐτῇ ὁ Ἰησοῦς· Ἐγώ εἰμι ἡ ἀνάστασις καὶ ἡ ζωή· ὁ πιστεύων εἰς ἐμὲ κἂν ἀποθάνῃ ζήσεται, 26 καὶ πᾶς ὁ ζῶν καὶ πιστεύων εἰς ἐμὲ οὐ μὴ ἀποθάνῃ εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα… (Holmes |
T13 almost quotes verses 7 and 8 (Πρὸς Ἰουδαίαν Χριστέ, πάλιν ἔρχῃ ζητοῦσαν … σε) and reproduces the idea from verses 25 and 26 by the repeated use of death terminology (ἀνελεῖν, ἀθανατίσαι, τεθανατωμένους). Thus, it becomes obvious that the hymnographer does not intend to develop an anti-Jewish rhetoric in T13, but he interprets the Johannine narrative through images from Genesis 2–3.
Church hymns reveal multiple possibilities of understanding biblical texts. Most often, hymnographers interpret the trees of Paradise in direct connection with the cross. Less frequently, the tree of life is a metaphor for Jesus. The shadow of the cross is a metaphor having the trees of Eden as source domain. Generally, a close relationship can be observed between hymnographic and patristic exegesis. In most cases, we may presume that church fathers set the tone and that their writings were sources for hymnographers. Nevertheless, hymnography reveals itself as a creative exegesis of biblical texts, and some of its interpretations, for example using the shadow of Paradise trees as a metaphor of the cross, are perhaps not found in patristic exegesis.
In addition to the use of typology, allegory and metaphor, hymnography can arise interest as intertextual exegesis of the biblical text. The reader assigns meaning to a text in interaction with other texts he knows (Van Wolde
The author thanks Prof. Sysse Gudrun Engberg for providing the critical text of the paroimiai from Genesis 2–3.
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
C.H.O. is the sole author of this research article.
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.
The passages are from the following paroimiai: Genesis 2:1–19 – first week, Friday, Vespers (Thursday evening); Genesis 2:20–3:20 – first week, Saturday, Vespers (Friday evening); Genesis 3:21–4:7 – second week, Tuesday, Vespers (Monday evening).
Lit. ʻParadiseʼ.
Compared with LXX Rahlphs, the paroimia adds “ the woman” (ἡ γυνὴ), without influencing the meaning of the phrase.
The life of St. Mary of Egypt is read in the Byzantine rite on Thursday, in the 5th week of Lent.
The indications in the Triodion mention Theodore the Stoudite (759–826 CE) as the author of the canon of Sunday Matins (see Mary & Ware
Revelation 22:2 takes the image from Ezekiel 47:12.