Historically, most Darul Ulooms in South Africa have been modelled along the curriculum of Darul Uloom Deoband in India, which was established in 1866, and there is a need for reforming the curriculum in a world that has evolved over time. In recent years, the role of the Darul Uloom has become more crucial as more students, both nationally and internationally, are now studying at the South African Darul Ulooms. This research article aims to propose some reforms to the current Deoband curriculum adopted by some of these South African Darul Ulooms.
This proposal suggests applying themes from Al-Mawwaq’s work to foster reforms to the curriculum, which will enhance and produce scholars who are more tolerant and able to deal with the changing circumstances, both nationally and internationally.
Wherever Islam spread, scholars accompanied the different delegations. As Islam spread to Africa, it also spread, in particular, into the desert of Mauritania (Hiskett
This research article traces the educational establishments and developments particularly in Spain and Mauritania, and thereafter, attempts to use the lessons from these two regions to reform and enhance Islamic education in the Darul Ulooms in South Africa. The selection of Spain is because of the works of a Spanish Muslim scholar, Al-Mawwaq, and the themes deduced from his work, which are used as suggested reforms to the curriculum adopted by South African Darul Ulooms.
While Mauritania has been selected not merely because a manuscript of Al-Mawwaq’s book is preserved in Mauritania but also because his book is held in high regard and relied upon by leading Mauritanian scholars, along with the academic excellence and literary legacy of the Mauritanian scholars.
Mauritania is significant in the scholarly links between Muslims from Africa and Europe. Scholars travelled and met other scholars and those who did not travel, their books reached many different areas. Al-Mawwaq’s book is one of the examples because he did not leave Granada in Spain; however, a copy of his book was preserved in Mauritania inside a private collection.
More significant is that the Mauritanian educational system, known as the
The Mauritanians embraced the faith and the language and eventually developed their own unique educational institution that suited their Bedouin lifestyle. The
The
The Mauritanian scholars authored many books, and the study of the Islamic Sciences flourished during the 17th century (Wald Mayarah
Attempts to document and codify the manuscripts in Mauritania date back to 1934 when two female scholars visited the Siddiya Library in Boutilimit, where they saw two large rooms filled with wooden chests that contained hundreds of books (Kratli
There were strong cultural and scholarly links between Cordoba, Fez and the Sahara. The Mauritanians relied on some didactic poems and books that were authored by Moroccan and Spanish Muslim scholars. The books of Ibn Rushd, the Andalusian philosopher, were used in teaching Islamic Jurisprudence of the Maliki School (Saalim
Al-Mawwaq lived in Granada, Spain, and through his biography, it has been established that he did not leave the city and eventually died there in 1492. According to Al-Zirikli (
The selection of Al-Mawwaq is important because he is a classical Muslim scholar who’s knowledge and application thereof blended
Before proposing any reforms, it is essential that Islam and Islamic education is understood within its context. Unlike Spain and North Africa, Islam in South Africa is recent. The first Muslims arrived as political prisoners in 1658 and not as conquerors. Shaykh Yusuf (d. 1699) of Macassar is regarded as the first Muslim scholar and a person who resisted the Dutch; however, most importantly, he was Ash’ari in doctrine, Shafi’i in the school of jurisprudence and an adherent to the Sufi way. He taught the slaves of the Cape at a time when the practice of Islam was prohibited (Da Costa & Davids
Other educational milestones in the history of Islam in South Africa include the establishment of the first mosque and madrasa by Tuan Guru (d. 1807) in Dorp Street, Cape Town, which served as a school to teach theology and a school by the Turkish scholar, Shaykh Abu Bakr Effendi who arrived in 1860 (Da Costa & Davids
Although there were some Muslims of Indian origin who were amongst the early arrivals in the Cape, the formal arrival of the Indians to the coast of Natal took place under the British. They arrived in 1860 as indentured labourers. These Indian Muslims were unified in Islamic doctrine and the majority adhered to the Hanafi school, although there were adherents to the Shafi’i school. The Sufi approach and practices were common amongst them (Shaikh
Numerous other schools and madrasas were established. Arabic and Islamic studies were introduced at some South African Universities. The first Darul Uloom in the country was established in Newcastle in 1973 (Sayed
The Darul Ulooms play a vital and significant role in the country. They helped to preserve Islam and its teachings within the community by producing home-grown scholars (
The need to reform the curriculum in the South African Darul Ulooms:
The scholars (
The failure or reluctance of the Darul Uloom to improve the curriculum is motivated by the fact that the Darul Uloom is seen as the custodian of authentic Islamic education and not necessarily opposed to modernity. Standards are not achieved because of the lack of adequate experts in various disciplines. Therefore, modernisation is the recovery of the authentic holistic understanding of knowledge so the scholars can reclaim their role as spokespersons for Islam. The Nizami curriculum is a product of a specific society and understanding suited to the particular social and administrative needs of the times (Noor, Sikand & Bruinessen
In recent years, the role of the Darul Uloom has become more crucial. Previously, many South Africans travelled to the Middle East to pursue Islamic studies. Recent political events have negatively impacted on the numbers of students travelling abroad and the foreigners arriving in the country to study Islam have increased. Some graduates from the Darul Uloom in Newcastle have established similar institutions in Cape Town, while Mufti Taha Karan (d. 2021) who graduated from Deoband established an institution in the Cape dedicated to teaching the Shafi’i school. Thus, the Darul Ulooms need to reform accordingly so that the graduates can make more meaningful contributions to their communities and be positive agents of coexistence in a South African society that is very different from India.
The rationale for reform is because of the direct implication on Islamic education in SA, the nature of Muslim leadership and subsequently its impact on the community. As a result of the links South African Darul Ulooms have with other countries because of its graduates, reforms in the curriculum have an even broader relevance.
We know that the syllabus in the Indian madrasas went through a process of gradual transformation over time, corresponding with the changing needs of the state (Sikand
The
The Darul Uloom specialises in teaching classical Islamic theology and legal texts, commentaries on the Quran, with emphasis on studying the Prophet’s life and complex details on how to navigate public and private norms. Secondary disciplines, such as Arabic and logic, are also taught. Madrasas advocate the public understanding of morality, ethics and conduct, which has impacted on family matters, finance and politics. Madrasas also support and maintain the practices of rituals, prayer and the remembrance of God (Moosa
Historically, most Darul Ulooms in South Africa have been modelled along the curriculum of Darul Uloom Deoband in India, which was established in 1866. The curriculum is based on the Nizami system, which was established in the 18th century (Rizvi
Initially, the Nizami curriculum had only one major Hadith work, and it concentrated on the rational sciences, although the scholars did not regard the rational and Islamic Sciences as rivals. In the Nizami curriculum, the text was selected for its pedagogical merits commensurate with the development of the student (Moosa
Deobandi thought may be summarised as mainstream Sunni, which manifested itself in Maturidi theology, the Hanafi School of Islamic Jurisprudence and Sufism that included the Chisti, Naqshandi, Suhrawardi and Qadiri Orders. The practical application of this was an extension of the legacy of Shah Waliullah (d. 1762) as per the teachings of its founders Qasim Nanotwi (d. 1880) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi (d. 1905) (Rizvi
The affiliation of South African Muslims to the Darul Uloom dates back to the arrival of the Indian Muslims to the country in 1860 (Shaikh
The Darul Ulooms in Lenasia and Azaadville are the most prominent and well-established Deobandi institutions in South Africa (Qasimi
Prior to discussing the themes in Al-Mawwaq’s book, a few general suggestions will be presented. These are not restricted to the curriculum but rather incorporate various aspects that are administrational.
In 1994, supporters of the Darul Uloom decided not to reform the curriculum, although Qari Tayyib, who was a rector at Darul Uloom Deoband, argued that there was room for reformation (Noor et al.
Teaching methods need to be broadened by encouraging students to read beyond the scope of the prescribed syllabus along with added debate, discussion and research. This may be achieved by involving academics from universities. The Darul Ulooms could facilitate continuous development programmes for its teachers. These could be formal and informal during which teachers master their subjects, as well familiarise themselves with teaching methodologies and approaches. It could possibly include some vocational skills, which ensure that the graduates acquire some skills, which would assist them in attaining financial independence.
Focusing on the indigenous community is important. The continuous focus on the Urdu language and an Indian Islamic legacy is a potential problem. The Darul Ulooms need to move beyond the followers of Asian descent and address the needs of the local black community (Reetz
It is essential to understand the current curriculum before presenting any recommendations. The South African Darul Ulooms have steered away from the Deoband course that is taught over 8 years. They offer a 6- or 7-year course. At one stage, the Deoband syllabus included 28 subjects and almost 100 books. In 1995, an Urdu or Persian syllabus was introduced and an extensive 8-year Arabic programme (Sikand
From the second year, the students are introduced into Islamic Jurisprudence (
Also in the second year, some
The third year is a continuation of the subjects in the second year with the introduction of some exegesis of the Quran (
Subjects, such as
In the fifth year,
In the sixth year, the students study a work on
The final year is dedicated to a study of the six canonical books of Hadith,
In comparison, the curriculum at Darul Uloom Deoband is similar with a few additional subjects because of the lengthier duration of the course (Darul Uloom Deoband
A comparison of the Darul Ulooms mentioned above reveals that the overall structure of the curriculum and the subjects is the same. The two South African institutions have less content in some subjects because of the 6-year course. The primary focus is on teaching the Hanafi School with an emphasis on
These Darul Ulooms have not included in their curriculum any study of the objectives of the Shariah, any formal study of Sufism, the Islamic approach to politics, anthropology, ethics and reasons for disagreement amongst the scholars, research methodology and contemporary issues relating to finance and medicine. The study of Sufism is interesting, because the institutions fail to manage the interrelationship between the academic programme and Sufism. The question is, are they promoting a madrasa and Sufi hospice (
The introduction of classical
This may be supplemented with a comparative study of the ‘principles of Islamic Jurisprudence’. The Hanafi scholars adopted an inductive approach through which they identified juristic theories and principles from juristic and legal responses. The Shafi’i scholars adopted a deductive approach that involved deducing the principles from the sources. This approach developed a framework for extracting rulings from the texts (Ramadan
The Nizami and Deobandi curriculum allocated much time to the teaching of logic and dialectics, which were used extensively in theology (
The study of the principles of Islamic Jurisprudence includes a complex topic that deals with analogy (
The present curriculum places a huge amount of emphasis on the study of
Some Darul Ulooms teach students the meanings of the words and verses of the Quran in the formative years. In the later years,
In South Africa a more structured programme dedicated to teaching research, public speaking and how to present Islam to people of other faiths must be included. This must be performed in English because graduates will eventually have to present their knowledge to the public. The teaching of Arabic must be emphasised because it will provide a student with a solid foundation and greater confidence in his or her overall ability to comprehend and navigate around Arabic books that were not formerly taught during the course, which is an important lesson from the
Al-Mawwaq addressed some issues that may be used to reform and enhance the Darul Uloom curriculum. He excelled in
Al-Mawwaq based his book on verse: 32–33 of Surah
This refers to a valid excuse that warrants the abandoning of the original Islamic ruling in favour of concession. The acceptable excuses include severe illness that is life-threatening, dire necessity and travel (Al-Zuhayli
The curriculum must allow for a detailed study
The topic of jihad, the government and the Islamic understanding of citizenship are necessary additions to the curriculum. Because of the absence of these topics, the graduate has very little or no sound understanding of how to navigate through the changing political climate globally. Hence, the Darul Ulooms have often been accused of being breeding grounds for extremist ideology. These accusations are justified because of the madrasas antiquated ways and its stubborn resistance to modernisation and the role played by some affiliated institutions in countries, such as Pakistan (Noor et al.
(Vestenskov
The Darul Ulooms can introduce the subject of Islamic politics and contemporary issues that include governance. This will enable the scholar to navigate through the changing political climate globally, and then perhaps the emergence of extremist groups, such as ISIS and Boko Haram, could be avoided. There are books by traditional scholars like al-Juwayni (d. 1085), and in recent times, Shaykh Abdul Hayy al-Kettani (d. 1963), which deal with the state, the Caliph, political science and international relations.
This will allow the Muslim to make meaningful contributions to the country and thereby to be good citizens. The Al-Azhar University in Cairo held a seminar on the Islamic perspective and understanding of citizenship
Once the student understands the role of the state and the citizens’ rights and responsibilities and the principles of enjoining good and forbidding evil, which have been elucidated by Al-Mawwaq, he will be better equipped to deal with a wide range of issues. This must be supplemented by the works of contemporary Muslim scholars, such as Muhammad Sa’id Ramadan al-Buti, Yusuf al-Qaradawi and Ali Jumuah. As Al-Mawwaq discusses aspects of
Muslims are travelling across the globe for various reasons, and there are Muslims who have made South Africa their home; however, they have their roots in other parts of the world. These people may follow one of the other schools of Islamic Jurisprudence, and definitely have different cultures and norms. The principles of Islamic Jurisprudence take these norms into consideration. Thus, the jurists have stated, ‘[
The curriculum must dedicate more time to understanding this principle along with its application, whilst being mindful of the
The curriculum must expose its students to a variety of different scholars and written works of the past scholars from places, such as Andalus and the desert of Mauritania, and contemporary scholars. This must be carried out with due consideration and dedication to teaching the ‘Causes of Disagreement amongst Scholars’ and the ‘Ethics of Disagreement’.
Al-Mawwaq dedicates much of his discussion to important issues related to the spiritual development of the individual and its objectives. The Darul Uloom must teach Sufism with its etiquette and not simply suffice with a few rituals or what may seem as a cult-like adherence to a spiritual guide. The knowledge of Sufism along with the practical acts of devotion and worship will produce a spiritually charged graduate.
It is evident from the study that the Muslims were motivated from the very beginning to acquire knowledge and disseminate it. This dedication to knowledge transformed Spain into an intellectual hub responsible for major achievements, and it transformed the somewhat unknown deserts of Mauritania into a land that prides itself in its mastery of the Arabic language, an amazing tradition of memorisation and thousands of manuscripts. Ultimately, it is this knowledge, if reformed along with sound morals and values, will most certainly transform the South African Muslim society.
An effective educational system combining the old and the new will preserve Islamic values and enable Muslims to be self-sufficient and allow them to flourish in the modern world. A cosmopolitan approach to blended learning will solidify the foundations of Muslim identity (Moosa
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
S.A. conceptualised and visualised the crux of the article and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. M.S. supervised the draft, and developed the methodology and formal analysis. Both authors reviewed and edited the final draft.
This article followed all ethical standards for research without any direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research work received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.
Salafi derived from