In the book of Acts, the Apostle Paul provides examples of leadership and displays significant leadership skills. In the speech to church leaders from Ephesus in Acts 20, he is presented as giving an account of his approach, detailing all the challenges involved. This article analyses how the Paul of Acts understood his own leadership role, in particular, the need for integrity, emotional involvement in the process and ceaseless effort. The article also examines Paul’s emphasis on the necessity for leaders to exemplify or embody in a perceptible way the values which they convey to others and demand of them.
While many of the paranetical sections of the New Testament could be summarised under the heading ‘spiritual formation’, relatively few passages particularly address issues regarding leadership
These instructions have received much attention in New Testament studies and in quests for Christian ministry and leadership. Jacques Dupont’s (
What is ‘the thing’ we are looking for? Both terms, lifestyle and leadership, are difficult to define. For
For
Before we start, some comments regarding our source are necessary. What we have in Acts 20 is the presentation of this speech by the author of Acts, commonly referred to as Luke.
Luke’s presentation of Paul can be and has often been compared with Paul’s own statements regarding his ministry in his letters.
In the larger genre of Acts as a work of ancient historiography (see Keener
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Our focus is on
At the beginning of his address, Paul recalls his own ministry among Jews and Gentiles in some detail: he taught in public and private (Ac 20:20), proclaiming and promoting not himself but declaring the whole purpose of God (Ac 20:27), testifying about repentance towards God and faith towards the Lord Jesus or the gospel of God’s grace and proclaiming the kingdom (Ac 20:24–27). Paul served the Lord (and the Ephesians) with all humility (Ac 20:19), not with the attitudes associated elsewhere with Gentile leadership.
Paul’s ministry in Ephesus was not one of distance or reservation: he lived among the Jewish and Gentile Christians, shared their lives and identified with them. For Paul to do so was all the more remarkable in view of the stance taken by other Jews and Jewish Christians of his day and age towards Gentiles.
Elsewhere, Luke also emphasises the
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This would have been followed from the late afternoon onwards by his ‘private’ ministry from house to house (Ac 20:20).
In addition, Paul worked in his trade as a tent-maker to support himself (Ac 20:34). It seems that even during this time, people had access to him and could observe him (Ac 19:12; whether Paul was aware of it or approved of it or not, they would carry off to the sick handkerchiefs or aprons that had touched his body). All this took place for about two years, ‘so that all the residents of Asia heard the word of the Lord, both Jews and Greeks’ (Ac 19:10). Later in the speech, Paul mentions a ministry period of three years (Ac 20:31) when he refers his audience back to his own example: ‘
Paul gives an account of his lifestyle and leadership to people who witnessed and observed his life. The persuasiveness of his account of his ministry presupposes that the audience can confirm Paul’s claims as they had ample opportunity to observe him carefully and knew him well. Paul’s leadership was tied to a lifestyle (understood as
Paul emphasises that he, although a leader (i.e. an
Despite his calling and commissioning by the risen Lord, the exceptional signs and wonders performed by him and his successes elsewhere and in Ephesus (19:11–12), Paul claims to have served
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Paul’s emphasis on his humility is striking in a social context in which honour was a prevalent value. However, Keener (
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Paul does not indicate the relationship between serving the Lord and ‘power under control’.
Paul also refers to his tears. Haacker (
These claims again underline Paul’s full commitment to the task. In his role as a leader in Ephesus, he served the Lord, was ready to relinquish status and to control his power and engaged emotionally with his followers.
In addition to situations that led to tears as he shared the lives of people, Paul’s ministry was challenged from outside. Some Jews plotted against Paul (see Ac 19:9, ‘but when some became stubborn and continued in unbelief, speaking evil of the Way before the congregation’). While appreciated and accepted by some (Paul’s followers), for others, Paul’s ministry was a riposte which had to be challenged. They attempted to restrict Paul’s influence on a group of people (Jews and Gentiles attending the synagogue of Ephesus, Ac 19:8; some people from that group had already become followers of Paul) by slandering Paul’s proclamation (‘the Way’). It is not clear whether and what kind of other plots were involved. In addition to other motives, presumably, this was also performed by Paul’s opponents to secure their own influence in the synagogue of Ephesus. Probably, there were also vested financial interests involved. Exercising and establishing leadership often leads to conflict with former leaders when followers shift their allegiance to new leaders.
It is noteworthy that Paul did not seek an open confrontation with these opponents and challenge their claims to influence (which may have led to unwanted official attention to the Jewish minority; see Ac 18:12–17), but withdrew from the synagogue without resistance, taking his adherents (τοὺς μαθητὰς) with him. Also, in this context, Paul displayed humility. The reference to his followers – the same Greek word is used for the followers of Jesus – underlines Paul’s success among Jews and Gentiles and indicates his leadership.
Despite these challenges to Paul’s leadership and the hostility and dangers which it involved (see the earlier accounts of Jewish hostility in Acts), Paul pursued his commission faithfully. He did not give up when facing such trials, rather he persisted.
The complete fulfilment of Paul’s task is the next theme. Paul assures his audience that he had declared to them everything that is profitable. He did not withhold any of what there was to know and that they needed to know. People, who will appear on the scene later on (in Ac 20:29, some of Paul’s opponents are in view), cannot legitimately claim that Paul’s message was wanting and needs to be supplemented.
Paul returns to this theme immediately before he commissions the elders for their ministry (Ac 20:28–30). He affirms his innocence as he not only diligently but also fully completed his commission (recalling the Old Testament prophetic tradition, in particular, Ezk
Paul did not hold anything significant back or employ his superior knowledge as a means of exercising power (as greater or full knowledge or information implies power), as some of his opponents might have performed. Paul did not preserve his superior status on the basis of the superior knowledge that he had at the beginning of his ministry and so keep a distance between himself and his followers. Instead, he generously passed on his knowledge in its entirety to them. He did so publicly for three months in the synagogue, for two years in the lecture hall of Tyrannus (see above) and privately throughout his stays in houses (Ac 19:8–9; 20:20).
Paul did not refrain from ministering in public
At the same time, Paul also provided instruction in private contexts, where the range of people and their numbers were more limited.
Paul had no vested financial interests in providing instruction as he fully covered his own costs of living (see Ac 20:33–35). Paul’s leadership was characterised by full transparency.
Closely related to Paul’s claim that he taught everything that there was to know, he ‘testified to both Jews and Greeks of repentance toward God and of faith in our Lord Jesus Christ’ (Ac 20:21).
Also, in Acts 20:31, amidst the charges to the elders, Paul claims that ‘for three years I did not cease night or day to admonish
This principle will have added to Paul’s credibility and to the readiness of people to follow him. As Paul’s ministry was public (and private), the audience could affirm that Paul made no such distinctions in his ministry.
Because of the rhetorical situation, that is, a farewell speech with the typical
Paul has emphasised his own initiative and approach in his past ministry up to this point. Now he turns to the future. He is about to set out for Jerusalem. Despite uncertainties regarding the outcome of this journey and the risks involved (‘not knowing what will happen to me there’), he is ready to set out courageously. He is obedient to the Spirit, even though he knows that such obedience will involve imprisonment and afflictions.
Despite his high calling and the generous divine affirmation of his ministry, Paul also submits to the constraints of the Holy Spirit. He is not a law unto himself nor free from such obligations. Paul’s lifestyle is one of obedience to the guidance and command of the Spirit. As a leader and influencer among the Christians of Ephesus, he himself is and remains a follower of the Spirit. Some of the authenticity and authority which Paul exercised will have derived from this submission to the Spirit, even when it involved unpleasant prospects.
Although not directly related to his leadership role
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Walton (
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Earlier on, Paul emphasised his
Paul’s lifestyle and leadership are not self-serving: ‘I do not count my life as of any value nor as precious to myself’.
Rather than serving his own purposes or self-enhancement, Paul’s goal is, ‘if only I may finish my course and the ministry that I received from the Lord Jesus, to testify to the Gospel of the grace of God’.
In his ministry and lifestyle, Paul aims at pursuing and finishing the course set before him by Christ. Paul is clear about the aim and purpose of his life. This course is not determined by himself according to his predilections and preferences but set before him by Jesus, the highest authority in the narrative. Paul the leader is a self-denying follower of Christ and ready to pursue what is set before him by Christ. As he influences and leads others, Paul is himself an exemplary follower of Christ.
Paul foretells that, after his departure, ‘fierce wolves’ will come in among the audience and will not spare the flock. Even from among the elders, men will arise who speak twisted things to draw away the disciples after them. In view of these impending threats, the elders are to be alert and to remember Paul’s selfless ministry. Being forewarned, they would be forearmed. To inform, counsel and warn others about future events (whether real and concrete situations at this moment or as the normal expected course of events) and to prepare them accordingly is part and parcel of the foresight which should characterise leaders. Paul shows lasting concern for the church, for those whom he leads, beyond the situation of which he currently is part or might be part in the future. An
Relinquishing material gain is directly addressed after Paul has spoken to the elders about the divine reward for faithful service (‘an inheritance among all those who are sanctified’
In the light of the close relation between financial interests and religious devotion previously displayed by pagan Ephesians (Ac 19:25–27) and the stunning amount of money involved in one aspect of the local pagan religion (books with magic spells worth 50 000 silver coins, referred to in Ac 19:19), Paul’s disclaimer in Acts 20:33–35 is particularly noteworthy. Paul did not share the material concerns of the silversmiths, but displayed true unselfishness. Weiser (
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In addition to serving as a distinguishing mark from false teachers of the future, Paul’s attitude was to serve as a model for the elders: neither are
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Paul gave the church and its elders an example of
Paul previously defined ‘such work’ as manual labour in Acts 20:34: ‘I worked with my own hands’. On this, Bruce (
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These leaders were not to follow the values of their own society and despise manual labour, but Paul’s example that embodies and expresses different values. Barrett (
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Through his own labour, Paul embodies the values which he proclaims, even if they are countercultural.
This charge is motivated by a maxim of Jesus in Acts 20:35 (‘remembering the words of the Lord Jesus’; cf. Lk 6:30). The elders are not to follow the values and practices prevalent in their society, but to implement fully in their lives the teaching of the Lord Jesus with whom they aligned themselves as Christians and whose authority they accept. This reminder of his Lordship divests this command of any optional character. Walton (
Before we discuss the implication of this portrait, we must briefly return to the nature of our sources. Paul’s claims regarding his lifestyle and leadership in this statement of account appear in a deliberate rhetorical context, that is, in one of the many
What about the implications? Following Hadril, we defined
Paul’s address presents a model of leadership for imitation.
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In fulfilling these tasks in ‘Pauline’ fashion, the elders continue Paul’s ministry, share in his authority and status and may count on the same divine support: commendation to God and the work of his grace (which Paul received for his ministry), on the same divine equipping (‘which is able to build you up’) and the same divine reward (‘and give you the inheritance…’, Ac 20:32).
In the speech or its immediate narrative context, Paul’s example is not relativised in any way.
In view of this, for his ancient and modern followers, Paul’s overwhelming example is not meant to discourage them by reducing them to failure in view of an ideal that can hardly be attained. Paul’s example is more nuanced: for them, he serves as an
There are a number of
Some voices in today’s leadership discussion refer not to lifestyle, but to
Examples of failed leaders and leadership because of questionable and detrimental lifestyle are numerous and quickly come to mind. Two issues suffice here: one need not look far for leaders who show favouritism among their followers by surrounding themselves with the cronies always ready to board the gravy train or who exploit others and generously line their own pockets.
Sadly, in some instances, the atrocious record of the white colonisers’ decadent lifestyle and crudely enforced rule
These references take us to a final question: can this portrayal of lifestyle and leadership be assigned to one or several styles of leadership in the current scholarly discussion (see the survey by Ledbetter, Banks & Greenhalgh
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The definition of servant leadership according to Northouse (
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Luke’s portrayal of Paul’s leadership also recalls the modern notions of
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However, Paul’s speech also recalls the principles of
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
C.W.S. is the sole author of this research article.
This article followed all ethical standards for a research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.
For an excellent survey, see Clarke (
A number of passages in the New Testament address the leadership (style) of non-Christians, such as the Jewish leaders in Judea and the Jewish Diaspora or Roman leaders in Judea and elsewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean world of the 1st century AD.
Northouse (
Quoted according to
For a different use of the term, see Stevenson (
See Keener (
On the emphases in the presentation of Paul in Acts and the methodological issues, see Keener (
In his detailed commentary on the speech, Keener (
See Walton (
For surveys, see Sweeney (
Other scholars have identified up to 20 typical elements (see Avery-Peck
See Luke 22:25–26 and the displays of Gentile pride and arrogance, for example, Acts 12:23 and 18:12–17. For Luke 22:24–30 as an important parallel text to Acts 20, see Walton (
For a survey, see Gilbert (
This recalls the charge of Jesus to the disciples in Luke 9:4: ‘And whatever house you enter, stay there, and from there depart’. While his co-workers were probably active throughout the province Asia Minor (e.g. in Colossae, Hierapolis and Laodicea) during this time, Paul claims to have stayed in Ephesus from where he probably co-ordinated the missionary endeavours in the area.
For discussion, see Metzger (
For discussion, see Metzger (
Paul employs the rhetorical strategy of sacrifice (see Hansen
In his letters, Paul often uses the verb in a positive way with clear countercultural inklings and in clear dispute with Greco-Roman practices of slavery and dependency that were expressed with this word group, see Weiser (
See Keener (
Drawing on texts which use a common concept although it was expressed through several different terms, Keener refers to the following examples from Greco-Roman sources: Those who govern gently (πρᾴως) commend themselves to their subjects (Polyb. 1.72.3); Roman conquerors also surpassed the Carthaginians in kindness (πρᾳότητα) and so won over many of the Spaniards (3.99.7). Vespasian was praised for identifying with common soldiers (Tac. Hist. 2.5), and Vitellius increased his reputation by kissing even common soldiers (Suet.
See also Keener (
The reference to tears recalls the tears of Jesus in Luke 19:41 and John 11:35.
Drawing on theories of religious conflict, the ‘contested domain’ in this case is influence over people or potential followers, for an excellent survey see Mayer (
For detailed analysis of this background, see Keener (
Walton (
In other places mentioned in Acts, Paul’s public ministry in synagogues and at the Athenian marketplace led to controversies, at times fierce.
Keener (
See Gehring (
Keener (
See Stenschke (
That faith in Jesus Christ was an essential component of Paul’s ministry was attested even by Paul’s Jewish opponents in Ephesus who started injuring evil spirits by ‘the Jesus whom Paul proclaims’ (Ac 19:13).
Paul could have easily done so in view of Gentile prejudices against Jews and of Jewish prejudices against Gentiles, see Bohak (
Paul would have done so out of conviction. He could be consistent because he was financially independent (see below). Paul also emphasises this in his letters to the Corinthians; for a survey of Paul’s financial policy, see Briones (
It is more likely that ‘spirit’ here refers to the divine Spirit rather than being a reference to Paul’s own resolve; see the discussion in Walton (
In view of many past and present instances of abuse, it is noteworthy that Paul does not refer to the Spirit to bolster his own status and authority in Ephesus or his own financial interests.
In a wider sense, Paul served in a leadership role in his collection for the saints in Jerusalem. The enterprise involved a number of significant leadership challenges. Paul influences a group of individuals, that is, the churches which he had founded in Galatia, Macedonia and Achaia, to achieve a common goal, that is, to assist the poor Christians in Jerusalem and to express their gratitude. The task of influencing the Jewish Christian recipients to accept the money lay still ahead of him; see the analysis by Stenschke (
Luke gives no indication of why this journey is so important to Paul that he sets out despite such announcements. 1 Corinthians 16:1–4, 2 Corinthians 8–9 and Romans 15:26–28 indicate that Paul is on his way with a larger group of representatives of churches from different areas and the collection of the Gentile Christian churches for the saints in Jerusalem.
For the widespread motif of bravery in the ancient world and the significance of sacrificial devotion, see Keener (
According to Haacker (
Rather than being served by the Ephesians or taking their possessions, Paul worked with his own hands to support himself and his companions (Ac 20:33–35).
According to Haacker (
Walton (
For the many parallels between Paul and Jesus in the speech, see Keener (
The elders are commended to God and to the word of his grace, which is able to build them up (Ac 20:32). The ‘word of grace’ is Paul’s only direct reference to the source of his lifestyle and leadership.
Regarding the function of these claims, Haacker (
While Acts 18:3 speaks about Paul’s manual labour as a tent-maker, Acts 18:5 notes that Paul fully devoted himself to preaching once Silas and Timothy arrived from Macedonia. They probably brought funds with them which allowed Paul to cease working in his trade and concentrate on his proclamation. Phil 4:10–20 indicates that Paul received gifts from the Philippians (in Macedonia) more than once. However, it is also possible that Paul’s companions worked and set him free for preaching the Gospel; see Keener (
Pesch (
For the readers of Luke-Acts, see Carson and Moo (
For a survey, see Hays (
Weiser (
Roloff (
See Bruce (
For a discussion of Paul’s own references to his manual labour and the reasons for it, see Barnett (
For an instructive parallel, see the presentation of his character and rule by Augustus in his
It is interesting to note what Paul leaves out of the picture. He refers to the ‘fierce wolves’ as a phenomenon of the future. Otherwise there are no indications that his own ministry and message were highly disputed, not only among Jews and Gentiles, but also among some Christians. This is part of the larger issue of the tendency in Luke’s presentation of Paul.
For a survey of the issues, see Porter (
Walton (
This is to be expected in a farewell speech which admonishes or warns the audience against undesirable actions and instructs or directs to undertake desirable actions (see Sweeney
The portrayal of Paul’s leadership in Acts needs to be placed in the wider context of Paul’s own statements regarding leadership, such as, for instance, 1 Corinthians 4; for a survey, see Clarke’s in-depth analysis (
The following considerations derive from my own concern regarding the present-day significance of Paul’s – for rhetorical purposes and because of the constraints of the genre
See S. Kgatle’s astute analysis of South African politics in his article ‘Ethical Leadership: Alternative to the Culture of Greed among Politicians in South African Government’.
For a recent survey of the devastating effect of German colonial rule, see Grill (
Walton describes this clear concept of leadership as follows (135–136): For Luke, the heart of Christian leadership is to be like Jesus, and the extent to which both the disciples and Paul do and teach what Jesus did and taught – frequently using similar vocabulary – makes this clear. Such following in the way of Jesus includes servanthood (e.g., Lk 22:24–27; Ac 20:19), for Jesus, his disciples and Paul serve others at cost to themselves, including past and future personal suffering (e.g., Lk 12:4, 11; 22:15, 28, 31–32, 37; Ac 20:19–21, 22–23, 27). This is why Paul calls the elders to such costly, watchful service (Ac 20:28–31). Jesus, his disciples and Paul served in humility (e.g. Lk 22:26–27; Ac 20:19), valuing others’ needs above their own (Lk 22:26–27; Ac 20:19, 21, 22, 24, 28, 34–35). They taught and testified faithfully (e.g. Lk 9:2; 12:1–53; 21:13; 22:14–38; Ac 20:20–21, 24, 25, 26–27, 31). This costly commitment drew out the affection of those they led (Lk 7:38, 44; Ac 20:37), as they saw the faithful ministry (Lk 12:42; Ac 20:20–21, 24, 27) they received. Their ministry was comparable to that of a household steward, whose leadership was real, but who was also answerable to his master (e.g. Lk 12:35–48, esp. 42; Ac 20:19, 24).
The suffering which Jesus and Paul experienced is an inevitable part of Christian leadership as Luke understands it (e.g., Lk 21:12–19, 36; 22:28; Ac 20:19, 23–24, 31), but should not be feared above God himself (e.g., Lk 12:4–7; Ac 20:24). Certainly, such suffering and threats from false teachers (e.g. Lk 10:3; 21:8–9; Ac 20:29–30) call for watchfulness (e.g. Lk 12:1, 5, 37; 21:34; Ac 20:28, 31), but in the end suffering and struggle lead purposefully to glory (e.g. Lk 13:32; Ac 20:22; Lk 22:16–17, 29–30; Ac 20:19).
The faithfulness of Paul and his master is particularly seen in their approach to money and work, where Luke portrays both men living and teaching openness, generosity to others and straightforwardness (e.g. Lk 12:13–34; Ac 20:33–35). God provides for such faithful servants as he does for the birds and the flowers (Lk 12:24, 27–28), but Paul also carries out the admonition of Jesus to provide for himself and others by working (Ac 20:33–35).
This represents far more than a collection of vague platitudes; it offers a dynamic, sharply focused model of Christian leadership rooted in Luke’s understanding of Jesus, in contrast with other approaches to leadership available in the ancient world (Lk 22:25).
See also the contributions by Spears (