This article focusses on women and the organisational leadership structures of the Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) in Zimbabwe. The aim is to identify the roles, practices and contributions of women to the developmental agenda in the church. The AFM in Zimbabwe identifies leadership positions in their various assemblies as pastor (
Leadership is an ancient art as civilisations continue their efforts not only to survive but also to advance (Titus
One such question is: How does one explain the upward mobility of one section of the members of a society or an organisation, whereas others remain stationary or move upwards only for a short period of time? This question is also relevant to churches as an organisation. Another question pertinent to this investigation concerns the phenomenon that some people can attain a dominant position in a fairly short period of time, whereas others remain followers in the lower ranks of the organisation.
For a society or community to exist and thrive, some form of leadership system is necessary. Leadership is necessary for an organisation to achieve its objectives. The Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) in Zimbabwe is both an organisation and a community. It has a structure and therefore requires leadership on different levels, from local assemblies to the national and international levels. The aim of the article is to explore the leadership system of the AFM in Zimbabwe to ascertain the measure of the acceptance of or resistance to women in higher offices and leadership positions. This has definite implications for the development of the organisation. The article argues that no meaningful development is possible without the active involvement of women and the utilisation of their gifts, talents and skills on all levels of society, communities and the church.
In order to come to a useful description of leadership, the terms ‘lead’ and ‘leader’ will be unpacked. A problem with language is that people and cultures often attach very different connotations to terms and words.
The word ‘lead’ can have the connotation of power and dominance to some, whereas to others, it can have the connotation of service and the nurturing of others to develop to their full potential. Church leadership does not only entail standing in front of (leading) a congregation but is also about influencing people to do and achieve something. According to Luke 22:26, Jesus said: ‘Let the greatest among you become as the youngest and the leader as one who serves’. This gospel perspective on leadership entails that it is not about demanding obedience from others. It is rather about moving things forward towards a goal. Anyone, any sex, male or female, can and should fully contribute to that goal with all the God-given gifts and talents at their disposal.
Leadership should therefore not be seen as the dominant prerogative of men, but as the calling of all who are so gifted. From such a perspective on leadership, it is for those who are mature, not in years, but in attitude or disposition. If men are not mature, they should not be leaders. If women are mature, there should be no impediment to their leadership. People with a mature disposition will necessarily understand leadership as
Leadership and development are about taking moral and spiritual responsibility.
The leadership of the AFM in Zimbabwe is described in the Constitution of the church. The development of the church is also attended to in the same Constitution. Those who make themselves available for a leadership role should fulfil the requirements and adhere to the regulations. Qualifications required are: seniority, the length of time the person has been a church member, kinship and inheritance (Daneel
The AFM in Zimbabwe submits to the power and influence of the Holy Spirit in both its operation and belief system. The development of this aspect can be traced through in three phases of the church’s history. According to a former leader of the church, the Reverend S. Mutemererwa, leaders are selected after much prayer and ‘yielding to the Holy Spirit’. This ‘yielding’ is performed by all church members through prayer and seeking the guidance of the Spirit. Although prayer and yielding to the Holy Spirit is of such central importance, there is, of course, also a distinctly human factor in the election of leadership. People make the final decision by casting lots. This electoral process is not exempt from human involvement and even human error. The exclusion of a major section of the church population with all the gifts and talents granted to them by God, from the opportunity to be elected, namely, women, can well be such a human error. However, the end result of the selection is confidently announced as the work of the Holy Spirit. This is a key component to the development of the leadership in the AFM in Zimbabwe.
Former president Mutemererwa pointed out that especially in the early years of church-planting in Zimbabwe, leadership yielded to the Holy Spirit for the day-to-day activities of the church with much dedication. His own experience with the power of the Holy Spirit was narrated in terms of two personal encounters. He told the story of how he would travel in the Chivi district, a rural area in Zimbabwe’s Masvingo province, and preach the gospel. In his travels and preaching, he experienced the guidance and protection of the Holy Spirit. He once encountered a male lion on the path he was taking. He spoke to the lion to let him pass and invoked the help of the Holy Spirit. The lion let him pass without a problem. The second story pertains to how women were first ordained in the church under his leadership when he served as the president in 1999. He explained that he as a leader had heard from the Holy Spirit that women should be ordained and he complied. Though he faced much resistance, his insistence that the Holy Spirit was the initiator of the process silenced the opposition.
Although women could since be ordained as pastors in the AFM in Zimbabwe, their daily lives and work are still affected by African cultural norms and taboos. These often hold that the role of women is second to that of men.
Experience and the length of time that they have served in the church are important criteria when it comes to the election of leaders. This is explained in the Constitution. The Constitution states that an elder ‘must be at least thirty years of age, spiritually mature and has served at least three years as a deacon without having been disciplined during that time’ (Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe Constitution and Regulations 1996:20). Seniority, experience and expertise expected of top leadership, such as an overseer or a president, are attained by means of a continuity of leadership service through the ranks from deacon to elder and beyond. The Reverend C. Chiangwa explained that one does not necessarily have to be a senior for all leadership offices, but for some offices, seniority and expertise are high priorities. For instance, even if a person has seniority and long-term experience but has been fairly passive, the probability of that person being chosen to lead would not be high. There is a specific procedure laid down in the policy with regard to the election to a leadership office. After an acceptable period of service in the church, a person can be recommended by their pastor for being vetted for a key leadership office. In this process, practice has shown that women are not often mentored or recommended by pastors. They remain invisible while men, even though more inexperienced than women, are groomed and recommended, irrespective of their lack of gifts or qualities.
Women in the assembly perform the roles prescribed to them by the local church board. Most of the work performed by women in the church is voluntary, not paid employment. This work is performed by people who wish to serve God in some way. According to the Reverend E. Gweshe, a woman can remain a secretary to the pastor if she is able to write or she can lead the choir and if she has musical ability. Leadership potential is considered when electing a leader, because leadership skills are developed over time. A person shows that potential can be chosen for leadership even though the person does not yet have a proven track record. According to the Reverend C. Chiangwa, moral uprightness is of the utmost importance when electing a person to a leadership position in the church. If a bishop or leader were to commit a transgression, the matter would be investigated and, depending on the findings of the panel, the person would be suspended or disciplined. The discipline could entail the removal of the person from the leadership office in which he or she was serving. The marital status and lifestyle of the person would be another pre-requisite for selection to leadership. This is based on 1 Timothy 3:12, ‘let deacons be husband of one wife’. In this letter, the language indicated that only male persons were deacons at the time. In African Independent Churches (AICs), for instance, both age and marital status contribute to the eligibility of a person to become a leader (see Powers
To qualify for the position of the overseer, a person should have completed 10 years of service in the church. The Constitution puts it as follows: ‘A provincial Overseer must have been an ordained pastor of the AFM in Zimbabwe for a minimum of ten years with a proven record’ (AFM Constitution 9.3.1, p. 24). Although this clause is not gender-specific, the attention is automatically focussed on male candidates, because of the patriarchal and cultural mindset according to which a female is not considered for leadership in key positions. Technically, ordained women with 10 years of experience in pastoral ministry in the church (which is now a possibility) could qualify as a candidate for the position of overseer. However, in practice, this does not happen. Women are ignored when it comes to selection for this key provincial position. The unwritten and unspoken assumption seems to be that women cannot be influential in the management and development of the church. The patriarchal scissors ‘trims their wings’ and keeps them from soaring. They are confined to the ‘lower echelons’ of local assemblies.
When the position of the overseer is explained in the Constitution, the exclusive male language is conspicuous: ‘
Through this kind of language, the gender question arises. The church, without reason or explanation, just obviously expects a male candidate when it comes to the position of the overseer. The exclusive male language continues: ‘The minimum age must be forty years, retirement age maximum of sixty-five years.
Inheriting the legacy of a father who had been a leader is another way for a person to be regarded as an adequate candidate for leadership. This is common to many AICs. Leadership is hereditary in that it follows the traditional concept of
Usually, leadership is passed on from father to son. Regardless of its Constitution, the AFM in the 21st century is not exempt from such practices. Some families feature heavily in the church’s leadership. These names carry much respect in the church. If a father was once a leader, either as a provincial overseer or the president, his children who become pastors are likely to be chosen for leadership positions. This again causes women as possible candidates to fall by the wayside because this practice favours the male heritage.
The leadership structure of the AFM in Zimbabwe is composed of, from lower to the highest level, deacons and elders, pastors, overseers and the president. For the AFM in Zimbabwe, constitutionally, grassroots leadership is situated mainly in the local board of elders. This gives a significant amount of power to the ‘lay’ component of the system, in other words those without formal theological training. In this structure, the ordained pastor becomes part of a team of seven members. The pastor does not have the autonomy to decide the development of the church alone. The views of the elders and deacons from the assembly leadership are the deciding factor. At the national level in the Apostolic Council, however, the elders have little decision-making power because they are outnumbered by the overseers who are ordained pastors. The higher leadership structure consists mainly of overseers, with only one elder who is the national administrator. All the overseers are ordained ministers. This hierarchy is now briefly explained.
According to the Constitution (15.3.1):
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The deaconesses are authorised to pray for the sick, as well as assist with the physical and temporal care of members of the church and the community. They pray for the sick and conduct other spiritual activities at the pastor’s discretion (Constitution 15.1, p. 31). On the other hand, the deacons in the AFM in Zimbabwe help with the administration of the church, as well as with the physical and temporal welfare of the members of the church and the community. They may also preach, conduct services and pray for the sick at the discretion of the board of elders and the guidance of the Holy Spirit (Constitution 15.2.1, p 31). On a grassroots level, the lay workers have decisive power because they constitute the majority of the church board. Clause 15.2.1 of the Constitution states that their guidance does not come from the pastor but from the Holy Spirit. However, when it comes to the
To become a
Each province in the AFM in Zimbabwe elects an
According to the Constitution of the AFM in Zimbabwe, the election of the
According to Banks and Ledbetter (
The AFM in Zimbabwe elects leaders through a process of voting. A person who is elected becomes a leader in the particular area in which they work. The mode of election is that candidates are first nominated and then voted for by the voters’ college by show of hands. The voters’ college initially consisted of the church board members of all the assemblies. This was later amended to only 10 members from a province. It is the task of the overseer and his committee to select the members of the voters’ college. This voting system is based on Acts 1:23–26 where the apostles had to find a replacement for Judas. In this example of casting lots, only men were considered to be eligible candidates. In effect, the exclusion of women amounts to those persons with the power to decide directing God to endorse their choice, rather than all the people of God being available to God to choose from and make known to people through their prayers. It is clear from how the apostles proceeded with the selection of the two men, who their preferred candidate was. The candidates were in effect selected by the people and not by God. This electoral system automatically excluded women because it started out by providing the male candidates from whom people could choose. The process was therefore not surrendered wholly to God. Had the patriarchal cultural system not dictated the process, women as half of God’s creation and half of the community of believers, might have been in picture.
Although a woman can feel called to express her gifts of leadership in the church, she will most probably encounter resistance. The voice of women at the senior levels of leadership is not strong. It takes a great deal of courage and a clear sense of calling for women to make it to the table where key organisational and developmental decisions are made (see Banks & Ledbetter
There are a number of leadership styles according to which church leaders operate as they direct and influence the group. The following three styles of leadership will be discussed and evaluated for application in the AFM in Zimbabwe: democratic, laissez-fare and autocratic. Each style has its own advantages and disadvantages with regard to the development of the church.
Many men still do not accept a woman ‘above’ them. Also, in the AFM in Zimbabwe, women have not yet found it easy to break new ground in the church’s top leadership. Some men are in favour of women in the ministry and opine that to deny women the privilege of service on some levels of the church will distort the gospel and impoverish the church and its development agenda. As women are the majority, a democratic leadership style should include their voices. This style of leadership encourages all members to share their thoughts. Democratic leadership can therefore lead to generating innovative ideas and creative solutions from the broad spectrum of the membership. Some members of the church are intellectually capable and can advise the leadership well.
This would enhance development. Although democratic leadership is ostensibly the preferred style of the AFM in Zimbabwe, the church is not consistent in its chosen style. The local board still is dominant rather than that the contributions of all carry equal weight.
While roles are unclear or time is pressing, however, democratic leadership can lead to a failure of communication and incomplete projects. This can disrupt development. It is also possible that the members of the group do not have the necessary knowledge or expertise to make quality contributions to the decision-making process. A democratic leadership style would therefore work best where the members of the church are educated and knowledgeable. In the case of the AFM in Zimbabwe, cultural norms and values play a role in the way in which leaders see their role and execute their duties. The position of the AFM leaders regarding female leadership in the top positions is based more on African culture than on a biblical understanding. It is easy to find biblical texts that support patriarchal structures and leadership. Therefore, the challenge for the AFM in Zimbabwe with regard to women in leadership roles would be to acknowledge the role of culture. Although the AFM in Zimbabwe is purportedly ‘democratic’, where gender is concerned, this ‘democracy’ is overshadowed by culture. Hence, women in the AFM in Zimbabwe are fighting a cultural war for their freedom from male dominance that has held them prisoner for so long.
The
For all of these reasons, this style will not work in a congregational structure such as the AFM in Zimbabwe.
The
Autocratic leadership involves absolute, authoritarian control over a group. This leaves the group with little or no input regarding matters that may affect them in the community or the church. In this style of leadership, leaders make decisions by themselves. However, to function well, executing the decisions may need the engagement of the congregation. Such leaders dictate the work, methods and processes, and members are rarely trusted with decisions or important tasks. Although this is not the official choice, this style can be found in the AFM in Zimbabwe. Especially those with a political agenda tend to adopt this style because it provides them with virtually unlimited power.
While this style of leadership is in operation, decisions are made quickly and without consulting the group.
While the leader has a specific agenda, some members can be appointed by the leader to implement that agenda.
While this style can be beneficial at times, it is open to the abuse of power. People who abuse an autocratic style of leadership are often experienced as being dictatorial and controlling. This can lead to resentment among group members. Because autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting the group, people in the group often dislike the decisions. They also dislike their powerlessness to contribute ideas. Autocratic leadership leads to a lack of creative solutions to problems. This can ultimately impair the performance of the group. While autocratic leadership does have its pitfalls, leaders can learn to use elements of this style of leadership wisely.
For example, the AFM in Zimbabwe can use this style effectively in situations where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group or has access to information to which the members do not have access.
Some leaders in the AFM in Zimbabwe have adopted an autocratic leadership style in different ways. Some ask for the input of followers but do not do anything constructive with their contribution. Instead, they often use the information to engage in church politics. In the process of gathering information from the followers, leaders who are suspicious and who do not have confidence in their followers regard the feedback that was intended to make a positive contribution to the growth of the church, as an effort to oust them. These kinds of struggles are ongoing and this also has an impact on women. Women are often dismissed as the ‘weaker vessels’ where men battle for personal power. In all of this, there is not much evidence of the core values of the gospel or spirituality. Autocratic leaders tend to demand recognition for themselves rather than giving themselves in service to the people and God. True leadership is a form of servanthood. According to Matthew 20:27, Jesus says: ‘… and whosoever will be chief (principal, leader) among you, let him be your servant …’ This aspect is embodied in Jesus who is ultimately the role model and head of the church (Heb 12:2–3). The integrity of those who say that they follow Jesus cannot be compromised.
Leadership succession is ‘the change of a leader as a result of among other things, promotion, death or sickness’ (Saungweme
After the board of elders has requested the Provincial Committee to call the pastor on their behalf, the Provincial Committee ascertains whether the call is in order. A letter is then sent by the Provincial Committee to the pastor who is called. The pastor can refuse the call. Should the pastor respond positively to the call, he or she replies to the assembly board through the Provincial Committee. Usually, only a pastor who has worked at an assembly for 2 years would be eligible for transfer or to accept a call to another assembly. Succession or change of leadership has its advantages and disadvantages. This is the case in the AFM in Zimbabwe as in any other organisation (see Saungweme
Succession
There is no causal relationship between succession and organisational performance. The church has to identify the relationship between its organisational need and the performance of its leaders (see Clegg et.al.
The AFM in Zimbabwe has in effect excluded women from the higher echelons of its leadership structures, among others, by using gender-exclusive language in its constitution. As women have been ordained in the church, since 1999, the old constitutional language is no longer useful. Now, women pastors are present in the leadership of the church. There has been a fair inclusion of women and a positive development in the leadership of the local assembly. On the higher level of leadership, namely, the Provincial Committee, and the highest level of leadership, namely, the Apostolic Council, the same cannot be said. Given the complicated mixture of the church’s episcopal and Presbyterian leadership as well as the different leadership styles adopted by those in power, there are quite a few possibilities for excluding women from full participation, especially when it comes to higher leadership positions. On the grassroots level, a female pastor, though the chairperson of the local church board, has to defer to the power and decisions of the elders in the assembly. The elders can engage the congregation and come to an unfavourable decision regarding the pastor. In this way, the pastor can be affected by the decisions of the board. On the higher level of the Provincial Board, where the power lies with the overseer who is a pastor, the way in which the overseer is elected does not leave much space for a woman to attain the position because of the voting system where she again is powerless. This is also the case at the national level of leadership where the president is chosen from the pool of provincial overseers. Although there is no explicit impediment to women rising to positions of higher leadership, the church’ gender bias is clear in the exclusive male language of the constitution. That is accepted without question and perpetuated even decades after women were first ordained in the church. The patriarchal culture in both church and society contributes to ensuring that male leadership remains dominant in the church’s highest offices. This has been the case since the inception of the church in Zimbabwe around 1915. This was also the case when black male leadership took over, with Langton Kupara as the first Superintendent around 1930. This is still the case today. Yet, the inclusion of women in leadership is critical to ensure that the AFM develops fully as the people of God and contributes fully to development in Zimbabwe. By utilising women’s God-given leadership abilities, the AFM can, for instance, contribute towards eliminating poverty and improving the quality of life for the majority of the people in the country. If women, who have the advantage of numbers, make that count and step forward to offer their gifts, talents and skills, and if men become willing to see and acknowledge the injustice of the present situation, all can work together to rectify the gender imbalance and exclusion that is still prevalent in the church. For this, awareness and courage are needed.
Organisational leadership, women and development in the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe.
The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
All authors contributed equally to this work.
This article followed all ethical standards for carrying out research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of any affiliated agency of the authors.
This article represents reworked aspects of the PhD-thesis of Joachim Kwaramba, titled, ‘A practical-theological perspective on female leadership in a Pentacostal context in Zimbabwe’, completed under the supervision of Prof. Dr Yolanda Dreyer, Department of Practical Theology, Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Pretoria.