Although the tension which Christianity, in continuance with the Sache Jesu, first displayed with its surrounding culture, gradually conformed to the predominate culture of the ancient Mediterranean world, probably to avoid further conflict, it seems that the author of 1 Peter, despite my preference for a later dating (
It has been argued by many gender scholars (e.g. Schüssler Fiorenza
A few scholars therefore reject 1 Peter in total, whereas others redeem the author by arguing that the gospel message is concealed within the patriarchal culture within which the letter originated and that the exegete merely needs to discover it. This article aims to suggest a different approach: reading the
Nugent (
[
The omnipotence of God is revealed from a position of apparent weakness. The crucifixion
This study opts for a combination of traditional, historical, critical concerns and a specific emphasis on the social scientific approach to New Testament texts to grasp the author’s rhetorical strategy and the impact it would have had on his first audience. Van Eck (
A text was designed to function within a particular historical context. It was intended to have an effect on the lives and behaviour of its recipients. What needs to be explained is the relation between the biblical text and the social condition it addressed. No text originates in a vacuum. All ideas, and therefore also theological ideas, are socially formed and need to be explored within the social and historical contexts that shaped them. Elliott (
Horrell (
Honour, as everything else in the 1st-century Mediterranean world, was considered to be a limited commodity. To gain honour, another male individual necessarily had to lose honour. Therefore,
In 1 Peter 3:7, the only
When the author of 1 Peter urges wives to be submissive or slaves to obey their masters, he is not perpetuating normative conservatism. Rather, wives and slaves as followers of Christ were to subvert injustice the same way Jesus did. Wives therefore do not submit to their non-believing husbands because they buy in to society’s evaluation of them as inferior to their male counterparts. Rather, wives can submit to their non-believing husbands because they are triumphant in Christ and therefore emancipated moral agents, who may win over their non-believing husbands by their moral and godly conduct.
Nugent (
This article attempts to indicate that early Christianity and specifically here the author of 1 Peter was challenging the customary gender roles of the ancient Mediterranean society. This article wishes to show that the author of 1 Peter is doing exactly that and that one could categorise the text as subversive in continuance with the
According to Schneider (
Τιμή also has a very significant religious use: ‘the worship of God’ (cf. Plat.Leg. IV 723e). On the other hand, a person is also honoured when the gods take a particular interest in him (Hom. Il 15, 612, 17, 99, 23, 788). An ancient belief existed in Greece that certain men were especially honoured and blessed by the gods. This belief spread to Asia Minor as well especially in association with Hecate and other deities (cf. Nock
The gods grant happiness, wealth and power to men in virtue of their own τιμή and δυναμις. It is therefore a mark of esteem, which characterises divine worship.
Τιμή in the first instance has a strong material orientation. Odysseus’ honour is especially bound to the restoration of the control of his possessions (Hom. Od. 1.117) (cf. Nilsson [1923]/24:365). Achilles’ honour depends on the number of gifts brought to him to persuade him to participate in the battle (Il 9.605). Bodily soundness, the undisputed exercise of social influence and uninfringed enjoyment of one’s property are the basis for honour or esteem.
Later, τιμή is used in a more ethical context. A certain type of moral conduct becomes a prerequisite for the esteem a human enjoys. Gradually, τιμή becomes detached from real possessions and becomes a more abstract concept of honour. During the early Greek period in the 8th century BC, honour as esteem by society on account of circumstances was the highest value among nobility. Later, in the city states, especially in Sparta and Athens, the honour of the individual was also that of the
The Old Testament requirement to honour one’s parents (Ex 2:20) and more universally to act morally in accordance with YHWH’s commandments (Gn 38:23; 1 Sm 15:30; 2 Sm 6:20) is similar to the Greek concept of τιμή. Because of the Alexandrian influence, the Greek terms increasingly penetrated into the idea world of Judaism. Τιμή is used in the LXX to translate 12 Hebrew words of which the foremost denotes ‘honour’ especially ‘honour’, which is because of God and should be shown to him. Humans are commanded to give τιμή and δοξα to God (cf. Job 34:19). But God also bestows honour upon the human whom he created in his image (cf. Ps 8:6). These concepts are made concrete within the cultic sphere: sacred garments emphasise the honour and adoration owed to the high priest (Ex 28:2).
In the wisdom literature, the ethical meaning of ‘honour’ is emphasised. To do good is to gain esteem from others. Association with wisdom confers praise among men and regard among the elders (Wis 8:10; Sir. 3:11). Within ancient Israel, a human also depended on the honour his father possessed. Τιμή is also used imperatively to command honour to be shown others, as wives are supposed to honour their husbands (cf. Est 1:20).
Τιμή also has the meaning of payment in the LXX especially in the sense of an honorarium owed for services rendered (Sir 38:1) or compensation for damages (Gn 20:16) or ransom for redemption (Ex 34:20; Ps 48:9). It could also refer to ‘valuables’ or ‘treasure’ (cf. Ezk 22:25; Sir 45:12). It is used once to refer to taxes in 1 Maccabees 10:29. And finally, the idea of ‘honourable conduct’ occurs in 4 Maccabees 1:10 and 2 Maccabees 4:15, especially in association with martyrdom.
Τιμή holds the following meanings in the writings of the New Testament:
‘Honour’ – In Romans 12:10, Paul commands the Christians to give honour to one another in a context of equality among members of the faith community which was held in such high regard by the early Christian church. Paul is addressing the charismatics’ false claim to spiritual superiority. The charismatic should rather aspire to hold the honour of the other in a higher regard than his own.
In 1 Peter 3:7, men are summoned to give honour to their wives. The meaning of τιμή in this verse is of particular interest to this study and will be developed further in what follows.
‘Esteem’, ‘dignity’, ‘recognition’: In John 4:44, the Evangelist reports a saying of Jesus that a prophet finds no ‘recognition’ in his own land. The combination of τιμή and δοξα which was familiar to Hellenistic thought often occurs in Christological statements (cf. 2 Pt 1:17; Mk 9:2–8; Mt 17:1–8). In 1 Peter 2:7, Christians are said to possess τιμή because they will share in the ‘honour’ of Christ for as living stones they build up the holy house of which Christ is the foundation. The believers are the elect whom God holds in high regard. If they are able to persevere and hold steadfast in their suffering for the sake of Christ, they will also share in his ‘praise, glory and honour’.
The cultic and liturgical use of the word: In doxological formulae, τιμή is often combined with related terms, for example, δοξα (1 Tm 1:17). This liturgical prayer formula derives from a pre-Christian Hellenistic synagogue. The most highly developed doxologies are found in Revelation
‘Value’ or ‘price’ – Τιμή can also be used with reference to earthly goods. The members of the original community in Jerusalem delivered the ‘money received’ through the sale of property to the control of the apostles (Ac 4:34). Annanias and Sapphira were accused of withholding ‘proceeds’ from the field they sold (Ac 5:2, 3). According to Acts 19:19, the ‘value’ of the magical books burnt at Ephesus was 50 000 silver drachmas. In Acts 7:16, the grave Abraham purchased was for a ‘sum’ of silver. So, 1 Corinthians 6:20 and 7:23 is of important theological significance in this regard. A ‘price’ or ‘ransom’ was paid for the freedom of the believers and Jesus Christ acquired the believers as a possession, because he paid the ‘price with his blood for their liberation from the dominion and power of sin’ (cf. Wendland
Malina (
Honour might be described as socially proper attitudes and behaviour in the area where the three lines of power, sexual status and religion intersect … Honour is the value of a person in his or her own eyes (that is, one’s claim to worth)
Honour can either be
Acquired honour, on the other hand, is a claim to worth, which is recognised by society when a person excels over others within the social interaction which is called
The challenge is presented in terms of an action or a verbal provocation or both.
The challenge is acknowledged by the receiving party as well as by the public.
The receiving party reacts to the challenge.
The contest is evaluated by the public.
Although exceptions did occur, these contests normally took place between men of equal social status (Van Eck
… [
According to Van Eck (
Furthermore, people’s primary source of identity was derived from the group which they belonged to.
The ancient Mediterranean personality was dyadic or group-orientated. The group exerted great pressure on people to control social behaviour. Therefore, according to Bechtel (
In ancient agrarian societies, women played the positive shame role. This means that women were expected to have this sensitivity towards the human into whose honour they were embedded – whether her father or her husband. Women were also expected to teach this sensitivity to their children (Malina & Rohrbaugh
An extreme sensitivity existed as far as the sexual shame of a woman was concerned. Male honour, when lost, could be regained, whereas once virginity was lost, a woman’s shame, her sensitivity towards honour, was forever lost. Therefore, any sexual offence on a woman’s part, however, slightly destroyed her shame as well as the honour of all the men in her paternal group. Therefore, the shame of a younger woman was expected to be defended until death by her brothers, her father and later her husband. As far as mothers were concerned, this was the responsibility of the oldest son.
The subversive thrust of the author of 1 Peter’s rhetoric now deserves attention. The author’s strategy is especially concerned with establishing a distinctive Christian identity and then advocates the outward conduct that gives expression to that identity. Horrell (
The author wants his audience to live blameless and righteous lives to avoid further hostility from the outside world. In the words of Horrell (
[
Proper moral instruction is therefore key to the author’s general message and purpose of his letter.
Dryden (
Dibelius (
The specific concern of paraenesis was moral development or character growth. Virtues have to be enforced whereas prior vices have to be abandoned. Dryden (
Therefore, Dryden (
Boring (
Christ who was crucified and resurrected at a specific time and place within history is of such a nature that it cannot be presented chronologically, for it influences the past, the present and the future (cf. Boring
In this respect, the author’s quotation of Old Testament Scripture becomes important. The audience of 1 Peter is the people to whom the Scripture speaks (cf. 1 Pt 1:10–12). In the case of 1 Peter, a narrative is not constructed, but the author projects a symbolic universe, which contains certain events. The shared history is reflected in the letter because the author supposes that his audience is familiar with these events. The letter does not only project a symbolic universe based on past events, but also on future eschatological events.
Finally, paraenetic literature seeks to foster an emotional desire for virtue. In developing these emotions, the use of the moral exemplar is very effective because the convert develops an admiration for the virtuous person.
In early Christian literature, that virtuous person is Jesus Christ.
In examining 1 Peter, it becomes clear that the letter does indeed display paraenetic characteristics. The letter contains many moral instructions in the form of exhortations and admonitions, of which the
Christ is invoked both as prototype or template for Christian life and as example for his followers. His suffering was uniquely redemptive, to be sure, but it also set the pattern that Christian life must follow, and Christ’s disposition during suffering sets the example for the faithful, who are to follow in his steps. Christ is the means by which God has saved the addressees, and Christ continues to function as their example and as the touchstone for how they should conduct themselves in society. (p. 184)
On the basis of the following statement by Dryden (
[
Additionally, the author also aims at constructing a world view displaying God’s action in the world and therefore integrates the moral instruction with a concrete situation (cf. Martin
This study agrees with this approach. Lohse (
According to Lohse, the
This study appreciates this view; however, Balch’s view that the author wanted to encourage assimilation and conformation cannot be accepted. The author places too much stress on the distinctiveness of the Christian community (Le Roux
The epistle’s emphasis on conversion, especially in 1 Peter 1:13–2:3, fits with the paraenetic agenda, describing life before and after conversion to promote the virtues of the new and eradicate the vices of the former.
The question arises, however, why the author opted for the genre of a paraenetic letter to address the suffering that his audience was experiencing. Why does he encourage them to strive for excellence in moral conduct when they are suffering? The answer that Dryden (
Therefore, the author does not simply write to them to comfort them and the aid them in surviving these troubling times, but he motivates them towards character development amidst these challenging circumstances. In the words of Dryden (
The suffering of Christ provides the theological framework within which the addressees should discover their new identity as well as the moral conduct which results from this identity. Christ ought to be imitated, especially in his suffering and in the way that he practised ‘soft resistance’.
For the historical critical exegete, it is crucial to take cognisance of the fact that the Greek word πάσχω ‘to suffer’ and derivatives thereof occur more in the letter of 1 Peter than in any other New Testament writing (12x) (1 Pt 2:19, 20, 21, 23; 3:14, 17, 18; 4:1 [2x], 15, 19; 5:10) and the related noun παθήματος ‘suffering’ in 1:11; 4:13, 5:1, 9. Frequently, reference is made to the suffering of Christ in 1:2, 19; 2:4, 23–24.
The innocent suffering of Christ is compared to the undeserved suffering of the addressees, for similar to Christ they did no wrong (2:19, 21–25; 3:28; 4:1). From the contents of the letter, this study concludes that the suffering that the addressees experienced was that of continuous slander and abuse by non-believers who shamed the Christians and brought them into discredit with the local Roman authorities (Le Roux
Neugebauer (
Therefore, this study agrees with Elliott (
The situation described above could easily lead to the newly converted becoming disillusioned and experiencing despair. If the situation persisted or was simply ignored, the believers would become discouraged. Many of them would consider deserting the Christian movement to avoid this suffering. As the believers became estranged as a result of their conversion to Christianity, a simple return to the former ways and a re-assimilation into the society which they belonged to would put an immediate end to this experience. This would ultimately lead to the disappearance of the Christian movement in Asia Minor.
Therefore, the audience required a persuasive word of consolation to remain steadfast in their new faith and commitment to God, Christ and one another and to resist the temptation of returning to previous pagan practices (Elliott
In the words of Green (
The letter also has a missionary agenda furthered by the ethic that it proposes. Elliott (
McDonald (
What they set themselves out to achieve instead – often not recognising fully what they were doing – was the construction of new forms of community within which the moral life could be sustained so that both morality and civility might survive the coming ages of barbarism and darkness. (p. 263)
Christian communities parted ways with the social world within which they existed, yet they did not practise ascetism. They were still living
The first Christian congregations formed an alternative community based on their new identity in Christ (Roloff
Le Roux (
Strategy plays an important role in the author’s success to persuade the audience on a cognitive and emotional level to motivate them towards certain behaviour and commitment to their Christian faith.
The author wrote in response to their situation of suffering and the strategy employed had to effectively address this particular circumstance. The letter was designed to address the Christian community’s suffering caused by their continuous social alienation. The author had to respond to their suffering in such a way that the control the suffering has over them is lessened. This situation could lead to the Christian communities completely disappearing because they abandoned all hope and trust. Britzer (
1 Peter offers, as Feldmeier (
The command to husbands in 1 Peter 3:7 forms part of the author’s paraenetic strategy and in this command, the author is not merely advocating a break with a previously accepted moral code, but he is establishing a new evaluation of reality within a certain theological framework. Therefore, the command to husbands to show honour to their wives should be interpreted in correlation with the wives’ inherent value as fellow heirs, συγκληρονόμοις, of the grace received in Christ. It becomes quite clear that it is the faithful husbands who are being addressed because the motivation behind the commandment is the fulfilment of prayers (Gielen
The author’s entire paraenesis addressed to husbands consists of only one verse. It is, however, a theologically and ethically loaded verse.
Firstly, the co-existence of the husbands with the wives is in focus and not their general co-existence with all the women of their household but with the wives to whom they are legally married (Reicke
In a similar way, the husbands are ordered to treat their wives with love and consideration and their behaviour should result from their relationship through faith in Jesus Christ. The motivation for this command is that their wives are the ‘weaker vessel’ ὡς ἀσθενεστέρῳ σκεύει. Gielen (
Σκεὓος, ους n ‘object, thing (pl. often goods, property); vessel, container, dish; instrument’ refers to a jar or container of some sort. Luke 8:16 employs the term to refer to the lamp that should not be covered by a jar or a vessel. The New Testament does, however, discern between two types of vessels: the ordinary ἀτιμίαν and the special τιμὴν. In Romans 9:21, Paul writes: ἢ οὐκ ἔχει ἐξουσίαν ὁ κεραμεὺς τοῦ πηλοῦ ἐκ τοῦ αὐτοῦ φυράματος ποιῆσαι ὃ μὲν εἰς τιμὴν σκεῦος ὃ δὲ εἰς ἀτιμίαν [Does the Potter not have power over the clay, to make out of the same lump of clay one vessel unto honour and another onto dishonour].
According to 2 Timothy 2:20, honour can be ascribed to vessels: Ἐν μεγάλῃ δὲ οἰκίᾳ οὐκ ἔστιν μόνον σκεύη χρυσᾶ καὶ ἀργυρᾶ ἀλλὰ καὶ ξύλινα καὶ ὀστράκινα, καὶ ἃ μὲν εἰς τιμὴν ἃ δὲ εἰς ἀτιμίαν· [But in a big house there are not only vessels of gold and silver, but also of wood and clay, and some to honour and some to dishonour].
Within this context, 1 Peter’s employment of σκεὓος in 3:7, he is probably referring to a fragile piece of pottery, which demands special care and therefore the instruction to the husbands would be that as believers they should treat their non-believing wives with care. Rather than exercising power over them and forcing them into the same religion, unbelieving wives could be converted to the Christian faith if their husbands treat them with dignity. This is analogous with how Christian wives were to influence their non-believing husbands and slaves their non-believing masters.
ἀσθενεστέρῳ σκεύει is therefore no theological or sociological evaluation, but rather a naturally given reality. It is on the grounds of a woman’s physical weakness and because of her vulnerability within the patriarchal context, that she is entrusted to her husband’s special consideration and loving care. Rather, the theological and sociological evaluation of the wives should be found in the command to the husbands to honour their wives as fellow heirs of the grace of eternal life given by Christ. The husbands should not use their dominance as women, but should renounce their position of dominance like Christ did.
The paraenesis addressed to the husbands reaches its climax in both these phrases: συνοικοῦντες κατὰ γνῶσιν and ἀπονέμοντες τιμήν. Similarly, as in the
It would have been contradictory if the author was to raise women to the status of moral agents before their unbelieving husbands, only for them to be trampled upon by their believing husbands, especially if the only
In my opinion, there are two extreme interpretations of the text and neither do the intention of the author of 1 Peter justice, if one does the proper exegesis within the subversive nature that the text displays. The conservative argument would be that the author perpetuates the natural order of things and insists on women being the weaker and subordinate sex; however, they do share in the salvation promised by Christ. To these exegetes, women’s inferiority is a self-evident truth (Nugent
Other more liberal exegetes would also argue that the text confirms and perpetuates patriarchy, only with the difference that they criticise the author for doing so, but excuses it as part of the author’s cultural heritage of which he is not able to detach himself. These exegetes would then argue that we must leave the cultural baggage of the text behind. Nugent (
[
This makes sense when one looks at the author’s employment of ὁμοίως ‘likewise’: the same logic, the same argument that was used to instruct slaves and women, is now used to instruct husbands.
The macro-context of the letter of 1 Peter is the consolation of the tiny and fragile Christian congregations in Asia Minor at the end of the 1st century CE. These communities fall victim to serious social ostracising, marginalisation and slandering because of their separation from former pagan ways. It is therefore a situation of a few scattered faithful communities against an antagonistic, mighty Roman Empire and state cult. The main objective of the author in writing the epistle is therefore to encourage and console these suffering and struggling communities. The strategy the author employs, especially in his paraenetic arguments, is one of revolutionary subordination in continuum with the example of Christ, which is advocated as the ultimate ethical guideline in 1 Peter 2:21.
The
However, the author’s statement in 1 Peter 3:1 empowers women to become active moral agents – something remarkable and extraordinary.
Balch in
It was generally accepted that the wife will adopt the religious custom of her husband.
However, this social order was increasingly threatened by the emergence of mystery cults from the East, which were particularly attractive to women. These cults were therefore regarded by most men as useless superstitions.
Although women enjoyed equal rights and certain privileged within these mystery cults, their practices were often extremely immoral by even pagan standards and often involved sexual transgressions. In such a way, for instance, the Dionysos cult was criticised as not onlysexually immoral but politically subversive (cf. Lv39:13, 10). Women were considered to be the primary sources of evil behind these cults.
Against this background, 1 Peter 3:1 should be read. 1 Peter 3:1 is not only indicative of the equality women enjoyed within the early Christian movement (see Goppelt
As members of a religious community which their husbands regarded with contempt, women draw suspicion and judgement upon themselves. Therefore, the ἀναστροφή ῆς f of the wives should counter these accusations in that their exemplary conduct is not despite of their commitment to Jesus Christ but a consequence thereof. This means that Christian wives were to accept the leading roles of their husbands within their households. However, it is their fear of God and not their fear of their husbands who should motivate their good conduct, and this becomes the way in which they will influence their husbands to become followers of Christ.
On the basis of 1 Peter 3:1 with the command to wives and 1 Peter 3:7 with the only command to husbands, it is the hypothesis of this study that the author of 1 Peter viewed women to be active moral agents and objects of τιμή, which up until now was an almost exclusive masculine value.
This leads me to the conclusion that the author of 1 Peter is not perpetuating the socially accepted view that women are inherently weaker and should be treated as such. Rather, he employs the metaphor of how households treated precious and delicate vessels as a model for the behaviour of the husbands towards their wives. The motivation for their behaviour is faith and knowledge and definitely not social confirmation. If the author wanted to maintain the culturally and socially prescribed differences based upon gender, then he would not have said ‘likewise’ but ‘husbands, on the other hand’, meaning that as they are men, different rules should apply.
I expect to have shattered the idea that 1 Peter 3:1–7 could be used to argue that the inferiority of women is a biblically sanctioned truth. On the contrary, the author of 1 Peter is rather employing a polemic against this notion because of the subversive nature of the text. Furthermore, one should be cautious to assume that the instruction to slaves, wives and husbands refers to relationships between believers. If one looks at the instruction to slaves and wives, it becomes abundantly clear that their behaviour towards non-believers is in focus. There is no reason why the instruction to husbands should be interpreted differently. The author’s concern throughout the letter is about the mission that Christians have within and towards a hostile world. The author of 1 Peter is not arguing for an ascetic lifestyle, but for engagement with the pagan world to win non-believers over to the faith.
The fact that the author urges husbands to honour their wives fits within the greater scope of the letter that honour should be bestowed upon
To conclude, 1 Peter 3:7 makes the point that social privilege, whether it is on the grounds of gender, ethnicity, seniority or status, should not be abused by believers to force non-believers into the Christian faith. Instead, following in the footsteps of Christ involves laying down the interests of the self and taking up one’s cross. This means par excellence to resort from any form of power play for Jesus Christ laid down his Godly status and submitted himself without hesitation to the will of God the father.
Therefore, especially people within the Christian community who enjoy a form of social privilege should keep in mind that those in the social strata beneath them are also co-heirs of the grace bestowed upon them in Jesus Christ. The letter therefore takes an unparalleled stand for equality among all believers who include equality among the genders, which is within the patriarchal Mediterranean subversive context indeed.
The author acknowledges that all the works consulted are listed in the bibliography.
The author declares that no competing interests exist.
I declare that I am the sole author of this research article.
The article followed all ethical standards for a research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.
Elliott (
On the origins of Christian paraenesis, see Thurén