The threat of climate change to the global environment is a daunting one, as the environment undergoes continuous change and degradation. Climatic conditions that are dangerous to human existence and a peaceful environment are becoming the order of the day. Countries across the globe experience different effects of climate change regularly. In his first papal encyclical letter, Pope Francis mainly addressed issues of the environment to represent environmental care as a moral and spiritual concern (Goodstein & Gillis 2015:44). In this letter, he posits that the environment is in crisis and emphasises that those who suffer most from the damage caused by economic systems that favour the rich and wealthy are the poor in the society (Goodstein & Gillis 2015:44). Mention can be made of the release of carbon and fossil fuel into the atmosphere, polluting the air and depleting the ozone layer leading to hot weather conditions and drought in previously rainy environments. Additionally, it is changing rainfall patterns and disrupting water cycles in different places. As a result, there is an increase in the frequency of storms, droughts and floods, among others, whose effects are too damaging for the infrastructure of most countries (Golo 2018:78). Food production is more affected, and post-harvest losses have increased, worsening the already struggling economic and social contexts (Filho 2011:v).

With these developments, Africa appears to be one of the most vulnerable and greatly affected continents despite its abundant mineral deposits and favourable environmental conditions. The devastating effect of this climatic condition on the continent is largely because Africans depend more on agriculture for their livelihood, from food, through crop production, fishing and animal production, to fuel from forestry, energy, etc. Inevitably, the poor and socially vulnerable people face negative consequences of this situation, even though Africa, as a continent, contributes minimally to the global climate change menace by emitting only a small amount of greenhouse gases (Golo 2018:77). This is affirmed by Von Czechowski (2020), in the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) African report, that the continent contributes just 3.8% of the global greenhouse gas emissions.

In Ghana, especially, floods cause a range of effects on people during the rainy seasons (Amoako & Boamah 2015:11; Planet Angry 2025), yet successive governments have not succeeded in adequately addressing the havoc caused by floods. Golo (2020:4) asserts that the stark realities of climate change have been stimulated among faith communities and religious professionals. This is evidenced by the continuous reflection by faith-based organisations, religious groups and environmental experts on the consequences of the phenomenon. Churches in Ghana frequently respond to climate change and its looming dangers through clean-up campaigns and tree-planting activities. Hence, with the biblical understanding of humankind being created by God to dwell and improve the earth on behalf of God in the environmental stewardship discourse (Chirisa 2010:1), there is a need to emphasise human responsibility to the environment in religious contexts.

The religious traditions in Africa have sound ecological ontologies derived from their religious understanding of the natural world and the role of humankind in it, which are capable of averting the destruction of the natural world (Golo 2020:11). Golo and Yaro (2013) add to this argument by maintaining that religiously inspired concepts of environmental stewardship are necessary for resolving the environmental problem. Such assertions are relevant to the Ghanaian context, where the majority of the population affiliates with Christianity (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS] 2021, 58). Given these observations, the interpretation of Psalm 29 could offer some insights for Christian leaders in addressing the flooding crisis in Ghana, considering its effects on Ghanaians who appropriate this psalm in their different contexts.

The article, therefore, employs the communicative approach to African biblical hermeneutics (Ossom-Batsa 2007:94–98) as a framework, with a narrative reading of Psalm 29 as a lens to examine how flooding resulting from human activities negatively impacts Ghanaian Christians who read and appropriate the Psalm in their contexts. It advocates that Ghanaian Christian leaders could draw out lessons from the Psalm to address the flooding crisis in the country by contextualising the understanding of the Psalm in the contemporary Ghanaian context. The call to action in the text suggests Ghanaian Christian leaders could provide peace [shalom] to the people from the understanding and appropriation of the power of God over the forces of nature in the Psalm, which has been entrusted to humankind through environmental stewardship.

The article is organised as follows. After the introduction, it presents a methodological consideration that discusses African biblical hermeneutics. It is then followed by the proposal of three stages of reading: exegesis of reality, which focuses on climate change and flooding in Ghana; exegesis of the text (Ps 29), then an engagement of the findings from the text and the Ghanaian context and a conclusion of the article.

To advance the reception of the biblical message by Africans, scholars in Africa dialogue with elements of the African culture and tradition through language for biblical translation, traditional values, religious and knowledge systems, etc. (Mensah 2024:1). In response to this, African biblical hermeneutics, an interpretative approach that considers the cultural horizon of the reader and focuses on reading biblical passages using the African context as the subject matter of interpretation has been employed to study different biblical text in the African context. Mundele (2012:19) defines it as ‘the interaction between the message of the biblical revelation and African issues according to the mindset and in line with the social, religious, economic and cultural situations of life’. This is supported by Amevenku and Boaheng who maintain that it is an approach to biblical interpretation that employs contextual principles and methods to interpret scripture to adequately address the socio-cultural challenges of the Africans (Amevenku & Boaheng 2022:7). A similar view is expressed by Mensah when he observed that African biblical hermeneutics employs elements within the context, including traditional epistemologies, cultural elements and texts to make the Bible relevant to the readers (Mensah 2024:1).

However, Arthur asserts that texts from the perspective of the Western world are viewed as alphabetic and linear, thereby relegating those that are not linear and alphabetically based writing systems to the background (Arthur 2017:7). Mensah supports this view and argues that Western scholars narrow the definition of texts to conform to a very restricted view without appreciating other forms of text within the African context (Mensah 2023:36). However, there are symbols in Africa that are not linear but communicate important messages to the African people. This affirms the assertion by Mbuvi (2023:13) that studying the Bible:

Therefore, the use of interpretive paradigms that engage the African traditional matrix with its cultural elements is very momentous.

What is significant to this interpretive approach is the fact that the Bible itself is cultural because it emerged through the cultural engagements of the Jewish and Graeco-Roman contexts. Hence, a proper understanding of the Bible’s message cannot be achieved only through reading the text, but through an engagement between the context of the text and the reader, which affirms the proposition of the ‘fusion of horizons by Gadamer’ (1989:305). By implication, the fusion of these horizons motivates readers to contribute effectively to the interpretive process and to bring to the fore issues and concepts within their cultural contexts that can illuminate their reading of biblical texts. This article thus engages the horizon of the text (Ps 29) and the horizon of the reader (Ghanaian context) in dialogue for transformation.

African biblical hermeneutics fosters a transformative dialogue between the biblical and African contexts that positively impacts readers through the interpretation of the given text, making the perlocutionary effect of the text more effective. Consequently, scholars such as Gatti (2017:46–67; 2021:257–258), Manus (2003:10–32), Gatti and Ossom-Batsa (2020:201–223), Ukpong (2000:3), Loba-Mkole (2021:2), etc. employed this hermeneutical tool to study different biblical passages in the African context to address issues that confront people in the continent. Against this background, the article employs African biblical hermeneutics for the study and presents the work in three stages: exegesis of the reality, exegesis of the text and dialogical engagement between findings from the text and context.

The first stage, which is the exegesis of reality, focuses on reporting on flood situations in some urban cities in Ghana by the media, observation of flood scenes in these major cities, and holding discussions with some residents in the flooding communities in some major cities in Ghana. Narrative criticism is employed to analyse Psalm 29 to explore the perlocutionary effect of the text on the reader in stage two. It entails the examination of the compositional and structural elements to arrive at an informed understanding of the text. Stage three focuses on the engagement between findings from the exegetical analysis and exegesis of reality to understand the implications of reading Psalm 29 by Ghanaian Christians and the expected response to the call to action in the text by Christian leaders in the climate change discourse. It further engages the appropriation of the text by Ghanaian Christian leaders in their context to offer a prospective approach in addressing the flooding crisis.

Floods resulting from climate change are becoming a perennial problem in most of Africa, of which Ghana is no exception. Nkomo, Nyong and Kulindwa (2006:3) assert that over the past 30 years, the frequency and severity of floods and droughts have increased. Floods in recent times have caused a lot of havoc in the country, particularly in the urban and capital cities of Accra, Kumasi, Takoradi and some parts of the Northern region (Douglas et al. 2008:190; Takyi et al. 2025). Heavy downpours during the rainy season often leave several suburbs of Accra and other towns flooded. Communities, like Kaneshie, Weija, Kasoa, Kwame Nkrumah Circle, Ofankor, etc., are the heavily affected areas (GhanaWeb 2025; Planet Angry 2025).

In addition, the spillage of the Weija dam contributes to the perennial flood situation in Accra, while the Akosombo and Bagre dams’ spillage also affects their communities, respectively. These spillages result in serious environmental challenges, creating economic and humanitarian problems. People are displaced from their homes; properties like cars and houses, as well as businesses and people’s sources of livelihood, are greatly destroyed by the floods in these communities. Agricultural produce, among others, is all destroyed by the floods. The floods also block several roads in the cities, making it difficult for vehicular and human traffic to flow. People sometimes get stuck on the road for hours, vehicles break down as the running water accumulates in the engines of cars when they get stuck on the road because of the flood (GhanaWeb 2025; Planet Angry 2025), and human lives are lost (OCHA 2007). This situation has negative implications for the economic and social development of the country.

Although floods are a natural phenomenon, some of the damage and losses they cause appear to be the consequences of human actions. It can be observed that modernisation, development and urbanisation contribute to the flooding phenomenon. Undoubtedly, increased migration into the cities impacts urban land surfaces and drainage. These human activities restrict the movement of floodwaters by covering large parts of the ground with roofs, roads and pavements that obstruct natural water outlets. People also construct drains that aid the rapid movement of water to rivers more than they did under natural conditions. This is evident in the capital cities of Ghana as attempts are made to meet the developmental needs of the country through different forms of construction (Abeka et al 2019:2). During heavy downpours, Ghanaians observe the enormous movement of large volumes of water running from the roofs of buildings and paved surfaces in urban areas.

Moreover, the volume of water that runs through the series of culverts and concrete channels created to guide the flow of water cannot adjust to the changes in the frequency of heavy rains recently, as natural streams do. In addition, the culverts are often obstructed by silt and urban debris as some people deliberately throw refuse into the running water, particularly in areas where houses are built near these channels (Amoako & Boamah 2015:114). This affirms the observation by Tarhule that ‘flood risks arise from a variety of sources, including extreme rain events and very weak or complete lack of mitigation programmes’ (Tarhule 2005:358). Consequently, just moderate rainstorms now produce high volumes of water flowing into rivers because of surface runoff from hard surfaces and drains.

It is worth mentioning that large-scale urbanisation, physical development, population increase in the cities resulting from rural-urban migration and poor economic conditions have contributed to the increased frequency of floods. It is not uncommon to see squatters living in flood-prone areas and people building in waterways, thereby blocking the free flow of surface water when it rains. This is a result of the high cost and difficulty of acquiring land in these urban centres. Unfortunately, government agencies responsible for ensuring that buildings are sited in the right places grant permits for construction work in such unapproved areas. This situation affirms the position of Douglas et al. that flooding in urban cities in Ghana is not only caused by heavy rainfall and extreme climatic conditions (Douglas et al. 2008:189).

In major cities like Accra, Takoradi, Kumasi, etc., inadequate drainage facilities, as well as poor maintenance of the drainage system, are major contributors to the perennial flooding (Planet Angry 2025). In Accra, for instance, areas like Oponglo, Kwame Nkrumah Circle, West Hills Mall on the Kasoa to Winneba Road, etc., as well as Ayijah, Sofoline and Abuakwa in Kumasi mostly get flooded for such reasons (Takyi et al. 2025). Such occurrences have heightened the flooding situation as the climatic conditions keep changing over time and human activities continue to worsen it with no practical efforts to address this crisis (Abeka et al 2019:7–8).

From a literary perspective, Psalm 29 falls under the literary genre of a hymn with three parts conforming to the usual structure of the genre. This hymn is used for liturgy by the Jews to confront human finitude with divine majesty (Mays 1984:60). It has been described by many as one of the most evocative Psalms and one that has been studied extensively in the Psalter (Barbiero 2016:378). Historians from the Ancient Near East have contested to gather echoes of Ugaritic and Mesopotamian mythology from the psalm (Barbiero 2016:378). As a hymn, the Psalm has three parts: The introduction, the main part, and the conclusion. The Psalm 29:1-11, as presented below, helps to analyse the various components of the hymn:

The poetic structure of Psalm 29 implies that the adoration of YHWH in the temple not only leads to YHWH’s acknowledgement of his power over the forces of nature. It necessarily concludes with the fact that YHWH gives power or strength to humankind. YHWH’s absolute and everlasting rule is committed to the complete salvation and blessedness of his people [shalom]. It is by harnessing that power ‘responsibly’ that humankind attains peace, that is, the equilibrium in nature.

This Psalm of David is a powerful expression of reverence and wonder for God’s majesty and dominion over the natural world. The Psalmist describes God’s mighty voice, which he likened to thunder, and the effects that it has on the natural order. This mighty voice of God, which the Psalmist indicates, calls on the sons of God to worship and acknowledge the sovereignty of YHWH throughout nature. It calls on Ghanaian Christians to demonstrate their acknowledgement of him by ascribing praise and worship to God. Implicitly, the daily worship ascribed to God on earth should foster the understanding of the Christian of God’s authority over nature and the created order. The understanding of the interpretation of the Psalm, therefore, has the following implications for the Ghanaian context.

The need to recognise God’s power over nature is an important dimension of religion and worship. This makes it possible to engage the Ghanaian Christian in dialogue through Psalm 29. By acknowledging the Lord’s glory because of his self-revelation, they thus recognise his position as God, his revealed nature and his holy character. Worship entails reverence for the nature and the attributes of God as the creator, which underscores human responsibility in the act of true worship. This could be reflected in the attitude of Christians towards God and the environment. Considering the current flooding crisis in Ghana, this passage takes on renewed significance. It suggests that discussions on climate change from a theological perspective should not only focus on divine power over creation but also explore human responsibility in sustaining the land. It should emphasise the divine power of God available to man to be good stewards of the environment. The fact that YHWH’s voice reaches the wilderness suggests that environmental degradation resulting in flooding is not beyond redemption but demands both reverence for God and human action.

Psalm 29 shows that while God rules over the cosmos, He has entrusted humankind with the authority to govern the earth. This delegated authority to humankind through leadership, governance and institutions requires responsibility to bring about peaceful coexistence between human beings and nature. To some Ghanaians, there appears to be a lack of political will by successive governments to enforce laws that protect the environment, as the problem keeps recurring every year in the Fourth Republic. Institutions and agencies responsible for effectively supervising the enforcement of laws on environmental protection have not been successful in achieving the desired result. Also, the negative attitude of the citizenry to creation care and in adhering to environmental protection laws makes it difficult for them to be enforced, thereby contributing to this perennial problem.

This notwithstanding, in the Ghanaian context, where the majority of the population professes the Christian faith, they should acknowledge that they have a divine mandate from YHWH to be good stewards of the environment. Christian leaders should therefore appreciate the strength of God entrusted to them and appropriate it to manage the environment for shalom to prevail in the land. This implies that those serving in government and in agencies responsible for managing the environment could exercise their God-given mandate to ensure environmental sustainability. Practices such as siting buildings in waterways, filling of waterlogged areas for construction, etc., should be resisted at least by Christian leaders to help address the crisis.

Therefore, with the increasing frequency of floods in the cities, Christian leaders within the government, local authorities and other state institutions and agencies responsible for ensuring compliance with environmental protection laws should acknowledge their service as a form of worship to God. They should take proactive and drastic measures to avoid the movement of floodwaters into certain areas of towns and cities, often giving priority to the main business and administrative centres. By this act, the negative impact of such floods on properties and livelihoods will be mitigated, as they have adverse implications on the economic and developmental well-being of the country.

Psalm 29 advocates for Ghanaian Christian leaders to reassess their relationship with YHWH and let it resonate with their care for the environment. The African culture involves the environment, as the ancestors preserved the environment for future generations. They lived and studied the environment as they communed with nature. The worship of God, thus, should include establishing a good relationship with the environment. Observing the beauty in nature and admiring God’s creation stimulates an appreciation for the revelation of God in the created order through worship. Hence, the call by the Psalmist on the sons of God to worship communicates to Ghanaian Christians to align the relationship that exists between them and God with creation, which includes the environment, to respond to the floods in their communities. Christians, as human beings, are expected to coexist in harmony with nature, including water bodies. For if we love nature, nature will love us in return. Our salvation [shalom] depends also on living in harmony with nature, for our life is incomplete without nature.

The psalm describes YHWH’s dominion over forces of nature such as storms, floods and wilderness and compels believers to respond to the worship of YHWH with wisdom and responsibility. As Jaffe (2023:51) highlights, the psalm’s adaptability in different liturgical contexts underscores its capacity to address contemporary concerns. Read through the lens of Ghana’s climate crisis, Psalm 29 presents a dynamic interplay between divine sovereignty and human responsibility in the quest for environmental sustainability. The Psalmist calls on Ghanaian Christians to recognise the need for attitudinal and lifestyle change in their production and consumption to address the human causes of the environmental crisis and not to aggravate them. Similarly, Christian leaders should appropriate insights from the psalm in responding to the flooding crisis. As noted by Goodstein and Gillis, ‘if present trends continue, this century may well witness extraordinary climate change and unprecedented destruction of ecosystems, with serious consequences for us all’ (Goodstein & Gillis 2015:20). The complete peace [shalom] of God has four dimensions: Peace with God, self, neighbours and the environment. Peace with the environment implies using the power God has given us to care for the environment and the created order. It calls for responsible stewardship. By ensuring prudent and sustainable use of our resources, we can save the climate from destruction, and human society as a whole will also have good health and longevity.

To conclude, the article maintains that by integrating insights from the structural and exegetical analyses of the psalm in the discourse of climate change, focusing on flooding, it demonstrates that Psalm 29 is not merely a hymn of divine power; rather, it is a prospective theological framework that can inform faith-based responses to climate change. Through the understanding of the divine power of YHWH entrusted to humankind, Christian leaders could exercise their divine mandate of environmental stewardship by ensuring effective enforcement of environmental laws. They could appropriate the text advocating for a positive attitude by Ghanaian Christians towards environmental laws. The interpretation of the psalm in a contemporary context thus promotes ecological justice and resilience.