The exclusion of women from leadership in African Pentecostal churches, particularly those upholding conservative theological and patriarchal institutional structures, reflects entrenched hierarchies that marginalise women and hinder the church’s growth. Despite global feminist efforts, including the United Nations (UNs) Sustainable Development Goal 5 on gender equality (Özdemir 2025:5), many African Pentecostals continue to resist gender-inclusive reforms, especially within leadership structures shaped by traditional gender roles, theological interpretations and cultural norms. While Pentecostalism effectively contextualises Christianity within African cultural frameworks, it often reinforces patriarchal systems that exclude women.

Although feminist activism has contributed to global progress on gender justice, significant barriers to women’s ecclesial participation remain. Continued feminist theological reflection, grounded in equality, dignity and justice, is urgently needed (Sen 2019:28; Yavorska et al. 2024:20). Women play a central role in church life – through evangelism, community engagement and financial support – but their contributions are rarely recognised in leadership. The legacy of missionary Christianity, which often excluded women from authority, continues to shape Pentecostal structures (Kgatle 2019:4; Wood 2019:2).

Protestant denominations such as the Methodist, Anglican, Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Dutch Reformed churches have ordained women for many decades now and have elevated them to senior leadership. Similarly, some global Pentecostal movements, including the Faith Mission, embrace gender-inclusive leadership. However, most African Pentecostal churches resist these reforms. Connell, cited in Van Klinken (2013:253), critiques religious ideologies for upholding male supremacy through conservative gender ideologies. This is evident in African Pentecostal denominations where leadership is often framed as inherently masculine and divinely sanctioned. As Oduyoye (2001) notes, theology and culture frequently reinforce each other to uphold female subordination.

Although African Pentecostal women are not entirely voiceless, especially in more liberative denominations like the Faith Mission, they are still generally confined to auxiliary ministries. Research on African Pentecostals locally documents the stark under-representation of women in key leadership offices despite their significant congregational participation and contributions (Kgatle 2019). In many African Pentecostal churches, they are permitted to lead only other women, while key leadership roles remain reserved for men. This highlights a dissonance between the majority of African Pentecostal churches and more inclusive global Protestant traditions. The intersection of doctrine, culture and gender norms presents a critical theological challenge.

This study examines how African Pentecostalism, particularly within classical black Pentecostal traditions, addresses gender equity and women’s empowerment while identifying theological, institutional and contextual barriers that perpetuate resistance to change. Marginalisation is understood as both formal and informal expressions of prejudice, including exclusion from recruitment, promotion and daily leadership interactions (Collins et al. 2015:209). Although Pentecostal denominations differ in doctrine and expression, they often share a theological heritage shaped by revivalist and missionary movements steeped in patriarchal norms (Gabaitse 2015). Despite their emphasis on empowerment through the Holy Spirit, a doctrine rooted in the belief that spiritual gifts are poured out on all believers regardless of gender (cf. Ac 2:1–4; Jl 2:28), many African Pentecostal churches continue to rely on selective, literalist interpretations of scripture that reinforce male dominance and exclude women from leadership. African Pentecostalism is understood as Pentecostal movements that have emerged within African settings, often shaped by local worldviews, indigenous religious heritage and socio-political realities.

The study examines how a Pentecostal denomination negotiates shifting gender dynamics amid broader social transformation and rising feminist awareness (Lone & Zargar 2017). The aim of the study lies in its critical engagement with the contradictions between Pentecostal doctrinal affirmations of gender equality and the lived realities of women in church leadership. By using the Back to God (BTG) denomination as a case study, it shows how African Pentecostal traditions reflect and reinforce wider patterns of gender marginalisation, challenging the church to re-examine its theology and practice in light of gender justice and ecclesial integrity. The research is informed by the work of Mercy Oduyoye, a foundational voice in African Women’s Theology, who critiques patriarchal readings of scripture and insists on the inclusion of women’s voices in theological discourse. Drawing on Joan Scott, Oduyoye highlights that ‘gender is a primary way of signifying relationships of power’ (Boham 2023:86). Through the founding of the Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians in 1989, she foregrounded theological education and gender justice as essential for dismantling exclusionary church systems (Boham 2023:85–86).

In South Africa, the classical Pentecostal landscape includes major denominations such as the Full Gospel Church of God, the Apostolic Faith Mission and the Assemblies of God denomination (Jacobs 2021:5). This study is located in the latter denomination, the Assemblies of God (AOGSA). Within this denomination, there are further divisions, mostly based on race. As noted by Resane (2018:42), the AOGSA comprises the Assemblies of God Association (AOGA), serving primarily Coloured and Indian communities; the Assemblies of God Group (AOGG), linked historically to white churches under John Bond; and the Assemblies of God Movement (AOGM), also known as BTG, founded by Nicholas Bhengu through his revivalist ‘Back to God Crusade’ in the 1950s, which was formalised as a full denomination in 1990. These remain the three divisions of this church, and this study was conducted among the African division known as Back to God (AOG-BTG or BTG). This division of the church has approximately two million members and more than 8000 local churches nationally. The BTG group can be identified as an African Pentecostal denomination because it is rooted in the experiences, contexts and cultural expressions of black communities in Africa. This contextually rootedness situates BTG within the broader framework of African Pentecostalism.

The interpretive research paradigm was used for this study, with a qualitative, phenomenological approach. The practical theology methodology of Osmer’s (2008:4) descriptive and interpretive tasks informed the study’s framework. In an earlier study, female members were interviewed on their experience of the church to reveal that they felt marginalised through a lack of leadership opportunities, through negative perceptions from male counterparts, imposed submission, emotional hurt, intimidation and being silenced (Jacobs 2021); hence they were not interviewed in this study. Data were gathered through in-depth interviews with 24 senior male leaders in the BTG denomination. The sample selection criteria involved male leaders who held various national portfolios, with more than 15 years of church membership and over 10 years in leadership. Their familiarity with BTG’s constitution, history and theological ethos made them well suited to provide insight (Flick 2022:165). Thematic analysis was employed to identify recurring patterns related to theological perspectives, institutional structures and leadership dynamics.

This study identifies three themes contributing to the marginalisation of women’s leadership in an African Pentecostal denomination: namely literalist interpretations of scripture, patriarchal expressions of African masculinity and historical denominational practices of exclusion. These findings will be highlighted in a summary fashion.

The findings in this study underscore that literalist scripture interpretations, the dominance of hegemonic masculinity and entrenched historical practices work together to marginalise women in many African Pentecostal churches. These findings are unique to the case study of the AOG BTG denomination, but it is commonly found in many African Pentecostal churches that generally do not ordain women.

The perceived differences between men and women largely stem from socialisation processes in which boys are raised to take charge and exercise authority, while girls are encouraged to be quiet, compliant and modest (Ampofo 2001:29). These deeply entrenched gender norms often go unquestioned within church contexts, and women themselves may internalise these prescribed roles. Consequently, pursuing gender transformation within Pentecostal communities remains a complex and challenging endeavour (Kanyoro 2002:80). A major point of this study is the extent to which African cultural values, particularly those rooted in patriarchal traditions, have fused with Pentecostal theology to legitimise gender inequality. Although Christian doctrine affirms the equal worth of all human beings, cultural biases have distorted the understanding of God’s intentions for human relationships. Theological constructs that portray male leadership as divinely mandated have frequently been employed to silence women, deny them ordination and limit their participation in church governance and decision-making. A conscious theological and practical shift affirming women’s dignity, calling and leadership potential is imperative if Pentecostal churches are to authentically embody a gospel of freedom and transformation (Jacobs 2021).

To break this cycle, a decolonial and feminist hermeneutic is essential, one that recovers the liberative threads of scripture and re-centres women’s lived experiences. Dube (2000) calls for an interrogation of both the text and the reading community, recognising how culture and power intersect in the act of interpretation. By engaging scripture critically and contextually, some African Pentecostalism can begin to reflect more faithfully the inclusive ethos of the gospel (Gabaitse 2015). Therefore, the persistent marginalisation of women in African Pentecostal churches is not primarily a biblical mandate but a hermeneutical choice (Gabaitse 2015), one that privileges male-dominated culture over the radical inclusivity of Christ. A transformative theological approach must move beyond mere citation of texts to an intentional re-reading that honours both the Spirit’s gifting of all believers and the dignity of women as full participants in the life and leadership of the church.

Scriptural examples affirming women’s leadership, such as Deborah, the prophetess and judge who exercised both spiritual and political authority over Israel (Jdg 4–5), provide compelling biblical evidence that God calls and empowers women to lead, even within patriarchal contexts. Yet such texts are often marginalised or neglected in theological discourse (Pierce 2018:153). Although African Pentecostalism is marked by vibrant spirituality, women who excel in ministry are frequently regarded as exceptions rather than representatives of divine calling. Meaningful change requires committed theological education that encourages critical and contextually informed engagement with scripture, including a re-examination of dominant masculinities and a renewed vision of the church as a community embodying justice, inclusion and the equal worth of all believers (Kaunda 2014:2).

Many African Pentecostal communities often struggle to balance spiritual vitality with formal theological training. Theological education has historically been resisted for being too academic and distant from Pentecostal experience (Quampah & Naidoo 2020:301). Yet Bible school instruction alone is insufficient; pastors now require deeper theological engagement and critical reflection, best supported by university-level training. As Quampah and Naidoo (2020:301) argue, this hesitancy underscores a deeper need for theological programmes that engage pressing concerns, particularly those related to women’s empowerment.

Expanding access to quality theological education not only addresses internal church issues but also supports broader continental goals, aligning with Agenda 2063’s call for inclusive and transformative education (Naidoo 2024:221). For theological education to remain relevant in contemporary Africa, it must move beyond narrow denominational boundaries and engage with the wider political, social and economic realities on the continent. Such education plays a crucial role in shaping leaders who are grounded in their communities and equipped to address real-world challenges (Naidoo 2010:347). Given women’s longstanding contributions to church life and mission, theological education must affirm the full participation of all believers, regardless of gender, in both proclamation and public witness (Schroeder 2018).

Hegemonic masculinity in church leadership mirrors broader patterns of power preservation. Deconstructing hegemonic masculinity in African Pentecostalism requires more than superficial reform; it calls for a reimagining of leadership, theological anthropology and power through a gender justice lens. This begins with theological education that challenges patriarchal readings of scripture and promotes inclusive hermeneutics. Leaders must embody alternative masculinities rooted in humility and mutuality, while institutional structures must be reshaped to affirm women’s equal spiritual authority. Only by addressing both theological and systemic barriers can churches create space for women’s full participation in ministry.

However, it also presents an opportunity to reimagine the church as a space where men and women lead collaboratively, interpreting scripture through a justice-oriented lens and embracing liberation as a divine mandate (Magezi 2019:8). Churches that fail to affirm women’s leadership risk undermining their prophetic witness and missional relevance. Thus, theological education and leadership development must prioritise gender inclusivity, fostering environments where the gifts of all believers are recognised, nurtured and deployed for the flourishing of both church and society (Juma 2024:115; Kanyoro 2002:85).

Both women and men bear responsibility in this transformative project. Women must continue to challenge patriarchal systems through theological education and advocacy, while men need to become intentional allies advancing gender justice. Shared leadership, grounded in principles of mutuality and inclusion, is not simply a corrective measure but is essential to the survival, credibility and missional vitality of African Pentecostalism today (Kaunda 2014:2).

And finally, recovering Bhengu’s vision demands a re-theologising of leadership, gender and calling, rooted in both biblical faithfulness and contextual justice. Although his vision was notably inclusive and countercultural, the institutional inertia and patriarchal reinterpretation that followed have significantly hindered its realisation. The gap between the founder’s intent and the church’s current practice presents a serious challenge to the theological and ecclesial integrity of AOG-BTG, especially in the context of women’s roles.

This study has examined the persistent marginalisation of women in African Pentecostal churches, focusing particularly on their exclusion from leadership roles. Despite some gradual progress, many denominations continue to grapple with entrenched challenges, including limited access to theological education, deeply rooted cultural gender norms and ecclesial practices that reinforce male authority (Matshobane & Masango 2018; Wariboko 2017:6). These realities obscure the biblical principles of justice and equality and constrain the transformative potential of Pentecostal spirituality.

This article advocates for a critical and contextual reading of the Scriptures frequently invoked to justify women’s marginalisation. It calls for a reimagining of Pentecostal theology, one that is intellectually rigorous, contextually grounded and committed to fostering an inclusive ecclesial practice that empowers women and challenges enduring gender disparities. By doing so, the study contributes meaningfully to African feminist theological discourse, illuminating the paradox within Pentecostalism: a Spirit-led tradition that proclaims liberation, yet it often perpetuates systems of exclusion.