The contextual approach begins with the concrete realities of post-conflict Poso. This involves listening to the testimonies of survivors, observing communal practices of reconciliation and analysing local cultural values such as Sintuwu Maroso and Posintuwu. In this setting, ‘the oppressed’ (Lk 4:18–19) are understood not only as victims of physical violence, but also as those who suffered forced displacement, loss of homes and livelihoods, destruction of places of worship, and the breakdown of interreligious trust (McRae 2013:45–46; International Crisis Group 2005:7–9). Contextual theology enables a reading of these realities through the lens of the Gospel while ensuring that theological reflection speaks into the local historical wounds and aspirations for peace (Bevans 2013:3–4; Singgih 2009:56–57).

Biblical reflection provides the theological and ethical foundations for peace. Isaiah 58:6–12 frames peace as justice-oriented worship that loosens the bonds of injustice and restores broken communities. Luke 4:18–19 reveals Christ’s mission to liberate the oppressed, offering a theological vision that embraces healing, justice and restoration for those wounded by violence. Ephesians 2:14–17 presents the cross as the ultimate basis for reconciliation, dismantling divisions and creating one new humanity. These passages are exegeted and then brought into direct dialogue with the lived experiences of Poso’s Protestant communities, demonstrating how Scripture speaks afresh in contexts marked by violence, trauma and the struggle for reconciliation (Wolfe 2024:127–160).

Within the systematic dimension, reconciliation serves as the primary theological framework. Atonement is treated as its theological foundation, illuminating how the redemptive work of Christ addresses sin, restores broken relationships and resonates with local practices of restitution such as giwu. Eschatological hope functions as the horizon that sustains the reconciled community, rooting peacebuilding efforts in God’s promised future. Drawing on the Reformed tradition – especially John Calvin’s theology of shalom and the Church’s social mandate (Calvin 2023:1907–1910) – this study articulates reconciliation as the Church’s missional vocation in a divided society. Allan Boesak’s theological resistance against injustice (Boesak 2016:87–90) and Gustavo Gutiérrez’s liberation theology (Gutiérrez 2023:51–55) further shape the ethical contours of this theological construction. The notion of the Church as a reconciled and reconciling community provides the structural core of the systematic reflection (De Gruchy 2002:45–48).

These three methods are integrated through a hermeneutical cycle that moves between context, Scripture and doctrine. The process begins with the concrete realities of Poso’s post-conflict society, is illuminated by biblical witness and is then deepened through systematic theological categories. Insights gained from this process are reinserted into the local context, allowing theology to emerge as both a response to and a guide for community transformation.

The methodological integration is anchored in the Kairos tradition. Just as the Kairos Document (Kairos Theologians [Group] 1986:7–9) emerged in South Africa as a prophetic theological response to systemic injustice, this study interprets the Poso conflict as a kairos moment – a divinely charged historical crisis that summons the Church to a contextual, faithful and transformative response. In this sense, to name Poso as kairos is not to romanticise suffering but to acknowledge a divine summons to respond redemptively in history.

This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects. Ethical clearance was granted by the academic board of Sekolah Tinggi Teologi Injili Indonesia (STTII) Palu on 04 May 2025 (No: 016/Ket/STTII-P/V/2025)

This section interprets the conflict that took place in Poso as a kairos moment – a time of crisis and divine challenge, in which the Church is called to discern truth, act justly and embody peace.

The conflict that erupted in Poso between 1998 and 2001 not only resulted in physical violence and material destruction but also shook the social structure, interreligious relations and the spiritual convictions of many individuals. In theological terms, this tragedy can be understood as a kairos – not merely chronos [chronological time], but divine time that calls the Church to transform and repent. Kairos is a moment of divine disclosure, when the suffering of the people becomes a birthplace of spiritual sensitivity and ethical responsibility (Boesak 2016:9–37). This perspective resists viewing the Poso conflict merely as a political or social failure and instead interprets it as a divine call for the Church and Christians to bear prophetic witness amidst crisis.

In many testimonies collected during the reconciliation period, Christian residents expressed that their suffering because of the conflict deepened their understanding of faith. As noted by McRae (2013:189–199), the experiences of displacement and loss created space for believers to re-examine their calling – not merely as individual Christians, but as a community summoned to be light and salt in the midst of society. In the midst of that suffering, the Church functioned not only as a place of physical refuge but also as a spiritual space for cultivating hope, sustaining faith identity and rekindling a vision of peace.

The interpretation of kairos is also strongly tied to the spiritualisation of suffering as found in biblical narratives. In Isaiah 58, for example, the people are called to go beyond ritual religion and practise true worship through acts of justice: ‘Is not this the kind of fasting I have chosen: to loose the chains of injustice … and to set the oppressed free?’ (Is 58:6). This verse reflects the calling of the Church in Poso to repent from apathy, to build solidarity and to become agents of social reconciliation. Conflict-stricken Poso thus becomes fertile ground for the birth of a contextual spirituality – one that emerges from the soil of suffering and responds to the concrete realities of society.

Kairos in Poso also reveals the Church’s limitations in anticipating and responding to rapidly changing socio-political dynamics. Before the conflict broke out, many local Protestant churches in Poso – like those in other parts of Indonesia – focused mainly on internal ministries such as worship, teaching and personal piety. This crisis, however, compelled many churches in Poso to re-evaluate their role and mission – not only within their congregations but also in society at large. This aligns with the perspectives on contextual theology articulated by Gutiérrez (2023) in A Theology of Liberation, where he underscores the necessity for the Church to be grounded in the lived experiences and suffering of the oppressed. Gutiérrez argues that theology cannot be abstract or detached from the realities of social injustice and must incorporate social praxis as a fundamental component, directly engaging with the struggles of marginalised communities. This view is further supported by the work of Boff (1997), who also emphasises the importance of integrating faith with social action, particularly in response to the suffering of the poor and oppressed.

Hope in the midst of violence is not an abstract theological category, but a lived reality embodied in the practices of the local church. In Poso, hope was nurtured through concrete actions: congregations opened their doors as places of refuge for displaced families, liturgical gatherings became spaces of collective lament and confession and interfaith dialogues were initiated to rebuild trust with Muslim neighbours (McRae 2013:193–196; International Crisis Group 2007:6–8, 2008:3–5). These practices demonstrate that hope is sustained not by denying wounds, but by facing them in light of the Gospel. To interpret the conflict as kairos means precisely this: to see historical wounds as places of divine disclosure, where repentance leads to transformation and where the church is called to embody reconciliation in tangible ways.

In the effort to rebuild peace in the post-conflict period, it is insufficient to rely solely on theological or political approaches imposed from outside. Authentic and sustainable peace must grow from the cultural roots of the local community itself. Within the cultural context of Poso society – particularly among the Pamona people – an indigenous majority in Poso whose deep-rooted Christian faith, especially within the Gereja Kristen Sulawesi Tengah (GKST), has shaped the region’s ecclesial and cultural identity. Literally meaning ‘strong unity’ or ‘firm togetherness’, the term reflects a spirit of mutual cooperation, solidarity and loyalty within community life (Imran, Dwi Septiwiharti & Nasran 2022).

In the history of the Pamona people, Sintuwu Maroso is not merely an empty slogan, but a principle of collective life that unites various villages and extended families. This principle is upheld in numerous traditional ceremonies, village deliberations and cooperative efforts in agrarian life. When sectarian conflict fractured the community, this value was temporarily diminished. However, it was precisely during the reconciliation process that many community and church leaders sought to rediscover and revitalise local values as a means of social healing. In other words, Sintuwu Maroso became a cultural bridge for post-conflict peace reconstruction.

By inculturating this indigenous value into their theology of peace, local Protestant churches in Poso have taken a theologically meaningful and contextually strategic step towards reconciliation. Through this approach, the Church does not merely preach about love and peace in abstract terms but connects these messages to deeply rooted local values. In the spirit of Sintuwu Maroso, acts of mutual forgiveness, intercommunity dialogue and interfaith collaboration find a solid cultural foundation. Churches in Poso, such as the Central Sulawesi Christian Church [Gereja Kristen Sulawesi Tengah, GKST], have increasingly incorporated local terms such as mosintuwu [peace] and molimbu [deliberation] into sermon narratives, Christian education and social programmes.

This integration reflects an inculturated theological approach as described by Schreiter (2015), who emphasises that truly grounded theology must speak through the symbols, language and values of the local culture. In the context of Poso, a theology of peace that does not take into account values such as Sintuwu Maroso risks feeling alien and irrelevant.

Before the conflict, Sintuwu Maroso – which literally means ‘unity in togetherness’ – functioned as a foundational ethic in village governance, communal work, conflict mediation and the transmission of moral responsibility. It shaped the daily rhythms of life, fostering social cohesion and a shared cultural identity among the Pamona people (McRae 2013; Yakobus, Yahya & Agustang 2019).

After the conflict, the fragmentation of trust and the rise of sectarian fear disrupted this cultural foundation. In response, some local churches began reclaiming Sintuwu Maroso as a theological resource for reconciliation – reinterpreting it through the lens of shalom, justice and the cross of Christ (International Crisis Group 2005; Yakobus et al. 2019). When cultural values such as Sintuwu Maroso are integrated with the Christian faith narrative, a new, contextual and transformative spirituality emerges.

Furthermore, it is important to note that Sintuwu Maroso implicitly aligns with Gospel values. For instance, the principles of bearing one another’s burdens (Gl 6:2), living in peace (Rm 12:18) and loving one another (Jn 13:34) are biblical values that find parallels in the local context. In this sense, culture is not viewed as an opponent of faith but as a medium of revelation, enabling a creative dialogue between the Gospel and its context. In practice, this has been realised through various interfaith community programmes in Tentena and Poso – such as youth interfaith activities, conflict mediation training and peace culture festivals – which incorporate local cultural symbols as expressions of reconciliation (Scalici 2018).

Local cultural elements like Sintuwu Maroso are not merely social tools but theological resources for constructing a praxis of peace. Among the Pamona people, Sintuwu Maroso – literally ‘unity in togetherness’ – has historically guided communal life through practices such as mopotu-uma [cooperative farming] and mpapolu [mutual support during bereavement], which fostered solidarity, shared responsibility and moral accountability [Human Rights Watch [HRW] 2002; Ruagadi 2024].

However, the Poso conflict severely disrupted these cultural foundations, as trust eroded and social cohesion unravelled. In response, local Protestant churches and community actors began to reclaim and reinterpret Sintuwu Maroso as a theological resource for reconciliation. Post-conflict platforms like Posintuwu emerged as initiatives to rebuild interfaith solidarity and communal healing, drawing on cultural values to ground theological vision and praxis (HRW 2002; Ruagadi 2024). Thus, culture serves as a bridge between faith and real life, between history and hope. Far from being an obstacle, Sintuwu Maroso becomes a vital theological treasure when reinterpreted in light of the Gospel, shaping a contextual and transformative theology of peace.

Contextual theology of peace, in this perspective, does not merely discuss peace as a theoretical concept, but rather concerns how peace is manifested in the social realities faced by the people. In the context of Poso, the theology of peace is not a notion detached from community life; instead, it is the integration of Christian teachings with the concrete experiences of believers who have endured prolonged suffering because of religious conflict. As Sobrino (2002) emphasises in his work Christology at the Crossroads, contextual theology of peace seeks to bridge the gap between the narrative of faith and the lived realities of the faithful. By doing so, the Gospel message can become a transformative tool of healing for the wounded body of society.

One way to understand this theology of peace is by integrating biblical principles with the local post-conflict experiences. In the Bible, we find many narratives that speak of peace, reconciliation and restoration. One passage that is particularly relevant to the context of Poso is Isaiah 58:6–12. In this passage, the prophet Isaiah teaches that true worship is not merely expressed through outward rituals but also by siding with social justice, liberating the oppressed and striving for justice for the poor and marginalised. For Christians in Poso, this text offers a powerful perspective: true peace is not merely the absence of conflict, but the presence of justice and well-being for all, especially those wounded by conflict.

Furthermore, the narrative in Luke 4:18–19, which portrays Jesus’ mission to liberate the oppressed, is also applicable to post-conflict reconciliation in Poso. In this passage, Jesus declares that He was sent to free the captives, heal the broken-hearted and proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour. This message is not only eschatological but also socially relevant, inviting believers to actively participate in the mission of liberation through concrete actions: social peace, economic recovery and interfaith reconciliation. Contextual theology of peace in Poso views the Church as an agent of healing for the social wounds caused by conflict, bringing not only words of comfort but also tangible actions that lead to the restoration of interreligious relationships.

The theology of the cross, which lies at the heart of Christian doctrine, also carries a profound dimension of peace. The cross, as a symbol of sacrifice and reconciliation, provides a solid theological foundation for the Church to engage in peacebuilding efforts. Paul writes in Ephesians 2:14–17 that Christ is our peace, who, through His cross, has united two previously divided groups (Jews and Gentiles) into one body. On this basis, churches in Poso are invited to see themselves as the body of Christ that transcends religious and cultural boundaries, embodying reconciliation and unity in diversity.

For Christians in Poso, the cross is not merely a symbol of suffering but also a sign of hope and restoration. Just as Christ’s cross unites His once-divided people, so too is the Church in Poso expected to be an agent of restoration, reconnecting communities torn apart by violence. This is a prophetic calling for the Church in a society still grappling with post-conflict trauma.

Contextual theology of peace also involves acknowledging suffering as part of the faith journey. In the Christian tradition, suffering is not the end of the story, but part of the process towards healing and hope. In the context of Poso, the Church plays a role in helping its members overcome trauma, heal social wounds and rebuild a more harmonious communal life. One way of achieving this is through peace education, which not only involves theological teaching but also practical approaches such as conflict mediation training, interfaith dialogue and the promotion of tolerance. The Church is also involved in economic recovery programmes for those affected by the conflict, so that restoration encompasses not only the spiritual but also the social and economic dimensions of life.

Contextual theology of peace in Poso does not emerge as a generic call to avoid conflict but arises from the lived experience of trauma, forgiveness and reconciliation within the Christian communities. Following the violent religious conflict, local churches such as GKST began to reflect theologically not in abstract terms, but through their embodied efforts to rebuild trust across religious and cultural boundaries. Activities such as interfaith youth programmes, trauma healing workshops and community development initiatives became expressions of what Bevans (2002) calls a praxis model of contextual theology – ‘reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it’ (Bevans 2002:70).

In the Indonesian context, this aligns with what Singgih (2000) emphasises as a theology ‘that must be open to the realities of society and culture’ [teologi harus terbuka terhadap realitas masyarakat dan budaya] (p. 5). The Church in Poso, as an integral part of society, does not bring an external theology to the people but rather listens to and learns from their sufferings and hopes – what Singgih calls ‘the place where the voice of God must be heard’ (p. 10). The result is a theology of peace grounded in justice, dialogue and transformative action.

The church plays a vital role as an agent of peace within society, particularly in the aftermath of conflicts involving religious communities. In Poso, where interreligious violence between Muslims and Christians has left deep scars, the church functions not only as a place of worship but also as a centre for reconciliation, healing and peacebuilding (Maluleke 2020). In this context, the church is called not merely to preserve the sanctity of faith but to actively engage in rebuilding fractured social relationships and advocating for justice.

As a peacebuilding agent, the church in Poso bears the responsibility of supporting reconciliation processes and creating safe spaces for interfaith dialogue. Concrete actions have included organising interreligious dialogues and inviting leaders from different faith backgrounds to collectively address societal challenges (Moynagh & Harrold 2012:370–410; Abu-Nimer & Nelson 2021). The church provides a forum in which community members can articulate painful memories from the conflict while also encouraging believers to transform their perceptions of others – regardless of religious affiliation.

Furthermore, the church seeks to educate its members on the values of peace, tolerance and justice as rooted in Christ’s teachings. A particularly relevant teaching is that of love for one’s neighbour, which underpins mutual respect and peaceful coexistence amidst diversity. In this way, the church serves as a moral compass, reminding its congregation that peace begins within each individual’s heart and mind (Healey 2012:45–47).

Peacebuilding initiatives undertaken by churches in Poso often include collaborative efforts with individuals from multiple faiths. In Tentena, for instance, interfaith youth programmes are implemented with the goal of fostering mutual understanding and trust. These programmes also offer training in coexisting peacefully within pluralistic contexts and managing conflict through non-violent means. Christian organisations frequently provide logistical support and moral encouragement to such initiatives (Ruagadi 2024:12–13).

The church’s contribution to economic development is also significant in its peacebuilding mission. Churches have extended aid to those affected by conflict, both materially and through vocational training. The church recognises that healing is not limited to spiritual restoration but also involves social and economic rehabilitation. Hence, churches endeavour to create opportunities for individuals and families to rebuild their lives in constructive and harmonious ways (Moynagh & Harrold 2012).

In this regard, the church functions as a healer of social wounds inflicted by past violence. One of the approaches adopted involves empowering members through educational initiatives and skills development aimed at enhancing community well-being. By equipping individuals with practical life skills, the church aspires to break cycles of poverty and marginalisation that often fuel tensions and hostilities (Healey 2012).

The church also plays a crucial role in equipping its members with the capacity to manage conflicts peacefully. This is achieved through training in conflict resolution and non-violent communication. Church teaching emphasises the importance of listening, understanding different perspectives and seeking solutions that are just and inclusive. In doing so, the church not only proclaims peace as an ideal but also imparts the practical tools necessary for living out peace in everyday life (Maluleke 2020).

Many of the interfaith peacebuilding programmes led by churches in Poso involve cooperation with Muslim institutions. One notable example is a joint initiative between churches and mosques to organise interreligious gatherings celebrating harmony and solidarity. These events encourage participants to share personal experiences, engage in constructive dialogue and embrace the value of coexisting peacefully in a pluralistic society (De Gruyter 2021).

Nevertheless, the role of the church as an agent of peace is not without its challenges. In the face of ongoing social tensions, the church often confronts resistance from individuals or groups still entrenched in sectarianism and religious animosity. For this reason, it is essential for the church to continue building its members’ capacity to perceive difference not as a threat, but as a source of enrichment. The church must work tirelessly to overcome lingering prejudice and hatred resulting from past trauma.

Despite these obstacles, the role of the church in peacebuilding remains critical. The church has the potential to serve as a unifying force within divided communities and to guide people towards renewed peace and social cohesion. As an agent of transformation, the church leads the way in processes of healing, justice and genuine reconciliation. As the body of Christ, it is called to be salt and light to the world – proclaiming God’s love, which brings peace to all people, regardless of religious, ethnic or cultural identity (Healey 2012; Moynagh & Harrold 2012).