Because of apartheid, the Reformed Church in South Africa (RCSA) organised four separate Synods in 1963: coloureds, Sotho, Pedi, isiXhosa and Zulu speakers, Venda and Tsonga speakers and white individuals. The Southland Synod was designated for individuals of coloured descent. The Midlands Synod catered to speakers of Sotho, Pedi, IsiXhosa and Zulu. The Soutpansberg Synod welcomed speakers of Venda and Tsonga. The Potchefstroom Synod was exclusively for white individuals (Ramantswana 2015:1; Zgambo 2018:77–78). The Synods convened to establish the General Synod, which convened during the apartheid era. The General Synod operated throughout that time, convening six sessions in 1965, 1975, 1980, 1984, 1988 and 1992, until becoming dormant (Ramantswana 2015:1). The current history illustrates the growth, maturation and decline of black reformed churches in South Africa. Kim (2019:307–311) asserts that the economic nature of the period involved the white Synod to provide ‘sustentasie’ for the black Synods and to compensate black preachers. From 1963 until 1979, all groups of black ministers received their stipends from the white Synod, rendering them financially independent from their local congregations. The economic reliance of the black reformed churches on apartheid constrained their capacity to combat apartheid practices. Baloyi (2016:1) asserts that black churches could not articulate their doctrine or advocate for change because of the potential loss of financing, which rendered them financially dependent. This dependence contributed to the current state of the black reformed churches as the black church could not advocate for gender roles, as in the black communities, women were playing an important role.

The emphasis on gender roles in black reformed churches of the Synod Soutpansberg must engage critically with the form of ‘reformed ecclesiology’ that originated from the Protestant Reformation. Though reformed ecclesiology upholds ideals such as the priesthood of all believers, the authority of scripture and the sovereignty of God, these theological tenets have been co-opted in such a way to reinforce patriarchal hierarchies and constrain women from leadership roles within their church communities. The article explores both traditional and progressive understandings of reformed ecclesiology and how both expressions have influenced the domesticating and formation of gender roles in black reformed churches in South Africa. Moreover, all Christians, regardless of gender or clerical status, possess direct access to God based on the principle of the priesthood of all believers. Leeman (2019:122–123) contends that this concept exemplifies God’s universal grace. Consequently, every believer possesses equal access to God and the need to serve.

Shih (2004:17) emphasised that John Calvin held diverse perspectives on imago Dei, indicating that humans are created in God’s image and hence bear responsibilities for stewardship and ministry. Calvin maintained that the entire body of Christ bore equal accountability to God. However, numerous religious organisations often marginalise women, excluding them from prominent leadership roles within the religion. The notion of exclusion suggests a theological commitment that was not relevant to the other culture. Obstacles in our present surroundings are necessary for us to comprehend the priesthood of all believers. Observing women assume complete ministerial roles as the church maintains its identity (Leeman 2019:124). The exclusion of women from leadership debates undermines the theology of equitable access. A deficiency of diversity diminishes the profundity of church ministry.

The distinction between instructing and exercising the priesthood of all Christians should provoke apprehensions over the church’s mission and legitimacy. If the church prohibits women from assuming leadership roles, it will be incapable of effectively confronting contemporary social and spiritual issues like gender-based violence and women’s empowerment. Studies on church inclusivity indicate that empowering individuals irrespective of gender enhances the church’s capacity to serve various communities and effectuate change (Bosch 1991:37). Because of these grounds, the doctrine of the priesthood of all Christians is increasingly gaining acceptance in black reformed churches and other theological groups.

For example, Uniting Reformed Church South Africa, established in 1994 by the amalgamation of the Dutch Reformed Mission Church and the Dutch Reformed Church in Africa, has achieved notable progress in gender inclusion. The first female pastor of Uniting Reformed Church in South Africa (URCSA) was ordained in 2005, as noted by Flaendorp (2014:53–54), and subsequently served as one of the presidents of the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Women’s Ministry frameworks have been established with significant impact on church governance. In 1986, the URCSA composed the Confession of Belhar largely as a response to apartheid, which in recent decades has been examined through the perspective of addressing multiple injustices against gender and sexual minorities, emphasising solidarity, healing and justice for everyone.

Furthermore, the Reformed Church of Zimbabwe has experienced two significant shifts in its perspective on women’s roles. In 1992, the church commenced permitting the election of women as deacons. In 2001, women were allowed to serve as church elders. In 2017, following comprehensive theological deliberations about the priesthood of all Christians, the church appointed women as ministers (Chimhanda 2013:3–4). The Women’s Fellowship agencies have ardently advocated for gender equality inside the church and a catalyst for societal gender equality. In addition, the Reformed Church of Zambia is grounded in reformed theology, similar to the churches of the Synod Soutpansberg, and has implemented various reforms. The church commenced the ordination of women as elders in 2000. By 2012, the church commenced ordaining several women as ministers, following a theological reassessment of the priesthood of all believers that prompted this shift. The church established gender desks in all presbyteries to advance women’s leadership (Hendriks 2012).

However, the Bible holds paramount significance for reformed Christians:

This is referred to as scriptural authority. This authority dictates the church’s doctrine, administration, and liturgy (Prevett 2021:59). Individuals and collectives understand scripture according to their hermeneutics, which affects the application of biblical principles across cultures and across history. Numerous ecclesiastical traditions, especially those originating from patriarchal societies, have historically endorsed male leadership and gender norms. The Reformed Church in South Africa (GKSA) retains male-only ordination practices and limits women’s voting rights in specific ecclesiastical topics (Baloyi 2010:5; Strauss 2015). Critics have condemned the selective use of scripture to endorse oppression and socioeconomic structures that neglect justice, equality and liberation. Nosike, Chianumba and Nweke (2024:101) assert that we cannot expect inclusion and equity to emerge from corporeal approaches rooted in the gospel or similar ideologies. A significant difficulty in contemporary biblical interpretation is the necessity to transcend patriarchal readings that have influenced ecclesiastical activities. Feminist theology, postcolonial theology and liberation theology have each created significant domains of theological investigation that analyse scripture to uncover motifs and narratives advocating for the marginalised and the pursuit of justice for all individuals. Nosike et al. (2024) advocate for justice through interpretive methodologies. The biblical mandate guiding their attitude is ‘Do justice, love mercy, and walk humbly with your God’ (Mi 6:8). These methodologies invite readers to reflect on the cultural and historical settings of biblical texts and their contemporary applications. The church may confront various social issues, including gender inequality, poverty, injustice and racism.

There has been a pervasive anti-feminist mentality in the Synod Soutpansberg because they are unaware of women in office, indicating a certain hermeneutic that must be critically examined. Despite asserting biblical integrity, is the Synod guilty of selectively emphasising certain aspects of scripture? The Synod prioritises biblical texts that limit women’s duties (e.g., Tm 1 2:12) over passages that show women in leadership (e.g., Jdg 4, Deborah, Rm 16, Phoebe and Junia, Ac 18 with Priscilla). While reformed theology emphasises the priesthood of all believers and sola scriptura, the Synod’s handling of women in office contradicts these teachings. This hermeneutic lacks the self-criticism that characterised the Reformation. The reformers aimed to transform ecclesial practices through fresh humanities readings, but the Synod did not apply the concepts to their understanding of gender. Aside from that, Covenantal theology is an important feature of reformed ecclesiology, viewing the church as the covenant community, transcending simple institutionalism to embody a collective of God’s people unified under his covenant of grace. This divine covenant with humanity encompasses reciprocal accountability, resource allocation and cooperative governance. The church’s mission can only be fulfilled if all members of our covenantal community execute their designated duties. This absence of engagement subverts the principle of collective accountability and opposes the church’s goal to embody God’s justice and inclusivity in the world. Covenantal theology, as defined by Common (2021:186), fundamentally advocates for egalitarian practices that align church structures and leadership with the biblical objective of equality. The covenant model of leadership prioritises service and stewardship above power and hierarchy. The church, by failing to hold women accountable, undermines its complete manifestation as a covenantal community. This constrains the church’s capacity to exhibit the diversity and unity of God’s congregation. Theologians and ecclesiastical reformers have promoted a novel church structure founded on the covenant principle. As per Common (2021), it encompasses alterations in governance, pastoral practices, community involvement and theological exploration. The black reformed church of Synod Soutpansberg, which have marginalised women from leadership roles, must transform for this transition. The church’s testimony to covenantal theology should possess wider social and global ramifications for society. A covenantal community that genuinely embodies God’s justice and inclusiveness exemplifies the gospel’s transformative power. The church can visually represent an alternative community that prioritises inclusivity and signifies equality.

This results in the continuous exclusion of women from church office, which is a significant contradiction to covenantal theology that requires immediate attention. The Synod has created a two-tiered covenant community, with men having full access to all forms of service and leadership and women being excluded from certain areas, regardless of their generation. According to the covenantal principle, all believers are liable for all others. The Synod’s decision to exclude women from decision-making creates an unbalanced accountability system, leaving women reliant on male leadership and unable to exercise governance authority themselves. In a covenant theology, God’s covenant applies to all believers, regardless of gender. Limiting institutional access based on gender does not align with this divine catholicity. The Synod’s silence on women serving in leadership suggests a preference for human traditions over God’s intention for the covenant people. Covenantal theology emphasises the importance of valuing spiritual gifts given by God to all believers for the greater benefit. According to the Synod’s statement, women who possess these gifts should face institutional hurdles that prevent them from fully expressing themselves in leadership roles. The Synod’s reactions (2006, 2012) have been on record for years, followed by 3 years of inaction. Not to mention the apparent unwillingness to deal with it even now. By maintaining that such theological inconsistencies are acceptable (although not desirable), they undermine the integrity of their covenant theology. This has an impact on gender roles, as colonisation modified our idea of gender in Africa. The West established patriarchal systems (Lerner 1986). Consequently, these structures marginalised women. In pre-colonial African societies, gender roles were malleable rather than rigid. Colonialism imposed a rigid hierarchy of gender relations, privileging males and subjugating females. Colonial administrators predominantly engaged male leaders to interact with African civilisations, disregarding systems in which women possessed authority. Selective involvement under the guise of feminism perpetuates male supremacy over women. Moreover, the implementation of Western governance frameworks throughout colonisation exacerbated existing inequalities by excluding women from political representation and economic opportunities. Colonial tactics diminished the economic authority of indigenous women. Cash crop economies allocated agricultural work and resources to male-dominated sectors, displacing women who traditionally managed subsistence farming and selling. Colonial governments instituted land tenure systems that prohibited women from owning or inheriting land, thus constraining their economic autonomy.

Colonialism transformed cultural practices and moral principles. Christian mission work provides certain educational opportunities for women; nonetheless, it often perpetuates patriarchy by endorsing submissive femininity. The missionaries’ teachings denounced customary practices that had previously allowed women to assume significant social roles, leading to a patriarchal structure. The erosion of gender complementarity in African cultures has had an impact throughout time. Numerous postcolonial African governments have relegated women to subordinate social and economic positions, obstructing equality. Academics propose that the upheaval caused by colonisation demands a deliberate decolonisation of gender and a restoration of pre-colonial African gender dynamics (Bertolt 2018:3). The influence of colonialism on gender roles and identity in Africa requires comprehension of the continent’s cultural context. This must encompass both contemporary and historical ramifications. To tackle these challenges, we must strive to dismantle patriarchal structures while simultaneously revitalising indigenous gender systems that esteem the complementarity and cooperation of men and women. Furthermore, Synod Soutpansberg’s Colonial Inheritance and Resistance to Decolonisation stance on women in leadership is a complex legacy that must be unravelled. The Synod has acknowledged the impact of colonialism on church structure but has yet to address how colonial gender ideologies continue to shape its political bodies. The Synod acknowledges some effects of colonialism, such as racial segregation and financial dependence. However, it maintains a gendered structure from colonial times, indicating that gender justice is not included in its selective decolonisation approach. The Synod’s rigorous gender hierarchy contradicts pre-colonial African gender systems that linked women’s authority to various human activities. This is a missed opportunity to re-establish tribal wisdom on gender complementarity from pre-colonial times. Other reformed churches in the region (Zimbabwe, Zambia and URCSA) have engaged in contextual theological reflection, leading to the ordination of women. However, Synod Soutpansberg has not engaged theologically, indicating a resistance to authentic African reformed theology that addresses gender justice issues. Synod’s 2006 and 2012 decisions highlight a lack of commitment to decolonising gender systems within the church, with a focus on procedures rather than action. Failure to speak with women in the office reinforces colonial patriarchy, contradicting their stated dedication to African contextual theology.