Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from Sekolah Tinggi Teologi Injili Indonesia Surabaya and STTII Surabaya Research Ethics Commission (No. 00371/KEP-STTII-Sby/EC/III/2025).

Kayori is a form of oral poetic performance that combines elements of song, chant, and narrative storytelling. Its genre may best be described as a ritual poetic chant, which is rhythmically delivered, often improvised, and rich in symbolic meaning. Performed during communal ceremonies or ancestral rites, Kayori conveys collective memory, ethical values, and spiritual reflections. As a flexible and dynamic oral tradition, it is shaped in real time by the performer’s interpretation and audience interaction. This results in variations in phrasing, length, and thematic emphasis across different performances (Filiandani 2019; Hasan 2015).

In contrast, the Psalms represent a fixed literary corpus embedded in the Hebrew Scriptures. They follow established poetic conventions such as parallelism, acrostic structures, and chiastic patterns (Brueggemann 1997; Westermann 1981). While composed in poetic form, the Psalms exhibit a high degree of literary sophistication, having been written, edited, and canonised over centuries.

Furthermore, the Psalms encompass a wide range of genres, including hymns, laments, thanksgiving songs, royal psalms, wisdom literature, communal and individual prayers, as well as imprecatory psalms (Brueggemann 1997:25). This genre diversity illustrates the rich liturgical, theological, and pastoral functions they served within ancient Israelite worship traditions.

Table 1 summarises key structural differences between Kayori and the Psalms.

Both Kayori and the Psalms incorporate natural imagery, but their symbolic interpretations differ significantly. Kayori reflects an animistic worldview, where rivers, mountains, and trees are imbued with spiritual significance and ancestral power (Lebaka 2015; WL Sigilipu dan PDO Sigilipu 2015). The Psalms, however, use natural symbols metaphorically, often portraying God’s protection, judgement, or renewal (Adamo 2020; Prabowo 2023).

A notable example is the symbolism of water. In Kayori, water is revered as a sacred, life-giving force with spiritual significance, often associated with ancestral blessings, purification, and cosmic balance through rituals performed near rivers (Nole 2024). It is believed to carry ancestral wisdom, making it a mediator between the physical and spiritual realms (WL Sigilipu dan PDO Sigilipu 2015). In contrast, the Psalms use water metaphorically, symbolising God’s provision, restoration, and spiritual renewal, as seen in Psalm 23:2, where ‘He leads me beside still waters’ signifies divine guidance and peace. Other Psalms associate water with righteousness (Ps 1:3), spiritual longing (Ps 42:1), and divine sustenance (Ps 63:1). This contrast reflects a fundamental theological difference – while Kayori attributes spiritual power to water, the Psalms affirm God as the ultimate source of life and renewal. Theologically, this distinction is critical for contextual theology, as any adaptation of Kayori’s water symbolism into Christian worship must align with the biblical teaching that God alone is the giver of life, rather than ancestral spirits. Understanding these differences is essential for faithful inculturation, ensuring that cultural expressions enhance rather than alter biblical truth.

In addition, both traditions express human struggles and spiritual longing. Lament Psalms, such as Psalm 142, express cries for divine intervention: ‘I pour out my complaint before Him; I tell my trouble before Him’. Similarly, many Kayori performances include poetic expressions of suffering and appeals to ancestral spirits for guidance (Filiandani 2019; Hasan 2015).

The social role of Kayori and the Psalms differs in terms of performance context and community engagement. In Pamona society, Kayori is integrated into social rituals – including weddings, funerals, and crisis response gatherings – reinforcing group solidarity and offering moral instruction (Andharu & Widayati 2018; Nursyamsi et al. 2023). The Psalms, by contrast, are institutionalised within Jewish and Christian worship, used in both corporate liturgy and private devotion (Prabowo 2023; Tsolin 2021).

Functionally, Kayori tends to express harmony, community values, and the ancestral link between the human and the divine. Psalms, however, represent a broader theological and emotional spectrum. While many Psalms serve as vehicles of worship, thanksgiving, or lament, others contain imprecatory elements – prayers for divine justice or judgement upon enemies (e.g., Ps 35, 69, and 109). This wide range allows Psalms to express complex human emotions in the context of a covenantal relationship with God.

A comparison of their functional roles is presented in Table 2.

Findings indicate that Kayori contains symbolic and poetic elements that could be contextualised within Christian worship, provided that theological discernment is applied. Some symbolic overlaps, such as nature imagery and themes of human longing, suggest potential for integration into contextual hymnody and worship expressions (Bevans 2002; Sunkudon et al. 2025). However, theological differences in cosmology and divine agency present challenges, particularly in distinguishing Christian faith from animistic elements (Duncan 2014).

This study has demonstrated that Kayori and the Psalms share structural, thematic, and functional similarities, yet differ significantly in their theological orientation and ritual applications. Both traditions utilise poetic expression and symbolic imagery, particularly through natural elements such as water, trees, and mountains. However, their underlying spiritual frameworks contrast – Kayori reflects an animistic and ancestral worldview, whereas the Psalms adhere to a monotheistic tradition centred on God’s sovereignty. Furthermore, Kayori is an oral and adaptable tradition, whereas the Psalms are fixed literary compositions embedded in Jewish and Christian worship practices. These differences highlight the complexity of inculturation, particularly in determining which elements of Kayori can be meaningfully integrated into Christian contexts.

The findings align with previous studies on theological contextualisation and oral traditions. Scholars have found that oral traditions serve as dynamic tools for moral instruction, cultural identity, and spiritual reflection (Bevans 2002; Bevans & Schroeder 2004; Faot, Octavianus & Juanda 2025; Lebaka 2015). This is evident in Kayori, which is deeply woven into Pamona communal life, much like oral traditions in African and Pacific contexts (Hasan 2015; Nole 2024). The Psalms, while structurally different, similarly function as a means of spiritual catharsis, theological teaching, and worship expression (Adamo 2019; Prabowo 2023).

One significant contribution of this study is its comparative approach, which highlights previously unexplored intersections between Southeast Asian oral traditions and biblical poetry. While research on indigenous liturgical adaptation has explored music, dance, and local storytelling in Christian worship, little has been done to examine how poetic oral traditions such as Kayori can inform biblical inculturation (Chia 2024b; Duncan 2014; Sunkudon et al. 2025). This study suggests that certain poetic structures, narrative techniques, and thematic elements from Kayori could be adapted within contextual Christian worship, provided that theological integrity is maintained.

A key strength of this study is its comparative literary and theological approach, which provides a nuanced understanding of both traditions beyond mere linguistic similarities. The use of hermeneutical and thematic analysis ensures that findings are grounded in textual evidence, allowing for a systematic comparison between Kayori and the Psalms (Roedy Silitonga 2020; Roosinda et al. 2021; Tiladuru 2018). In addition, the study draws upon both primary and secondary sources, strengthening the validity of its interpretations.

However, several limitations must be acknowledged. Firstly, the study relies primarily on textual and secondary sources, without field-based ethnographic data. While literature on Kayori provides substantial insights, direct engagement with Pamona practitioners could have enriched the analysis. Secondly, the study does not examine the historical evolution of Kayori, which could provide further context regarding its religious adaptations over time. Lastly, while the study identifies theological tensions in inculturating Kayori into Christian worship, it does not offer practical models for such integration, leaving this as an area for future research.

The findings of this study have important implications for theological inculturation, biblical scholarship, and the preservation of indigenous oral traditions. Firstly, this study suggests that Kayori’s poetic and symbolic elements may be integrated into contextual Christian worship, particularly in hymnody, storytelling, and communal prayers. However, theological caution is required to distinguish biblical faith from animistic elements (Bevans 2002; Duncan 2014).

Secondly, this research contributes to comparative theology by demonstrating that Southeast Asian oral traditions contain profound spiritual reflections that merit further scholarly attention. Future research should explore how other indigenous poetic traditions relate to biblical texts, particularly in contexts where oral traditions shape theological expressions (Lebaka 2015; Nyuyki 2018).

Finally, this study underscores the need for interdisciplinary collaboration between biblical scholars, ethnographers, and theologians to develop practical models for inculturation. Further research could involve fieldwork with Pamona elders and Christian leaders, examining how Kayori’s poetic structures could be used in liturgical settings without compromising Christian doctrine (Charles H. Kraft 2005; Duncan 2014; Faot et al. 2025; Sunkudon et al. 2025).

One significant implication is that Kayori’s poetic and symbolic elements offer potential for contextualising Christian worship in Pamona and other indigenous communities. Because both Kayori and the Psalms employ rich poetic language and communal expressions, elements of Kayori could be incorporated into hymnody, liturgical readings, and storytelling. However, this must be done with theological discernment to ensure that the biblical message remains central and that adaptations do not lead to syncretism. Churches and Christian educators should develop guidelines for inculturating local traditions, ensuring alignment with biblical doctrine while valuing cultural heritage.

From a biblical scholarship perspective, this study demonstrates the value of comparative theological research, particularly between indigenous oral traditions and biblical texts. The analysis suggests that oral traditions, like Kayori, contain profound theological and moral reflections, making them an important but often overlooked resource for cross-cultural theological studies. Future research should expand comparative studies beyond the Psalms to include other biblical poetry and wisdom literature, such as Proverbs or Lamentations, to explore broader literary and theological connections.

In terms of cultural preservation, this study underscores the urgent need to document and revitalise indigenous oral traditions in the face of modernisation and globalisation. Kayori, like many other oral traditions, is at risk of disappearing as younger generations move towards written and digital modes of communication. Collaborations between academics, local cultural practitioners, and Christian leaders could facilitate initiatives to preserve and revitalise oral traditions, integrating them into faith-based education and cultural programmes.

Ethnographic studies on Kayori in Christian worship: Future research should conduct field-based ethnographic studies on how Kayori is currently perceived and used within Christian communities. This would provide deeper insights into how local churches approach theological inculturation.

Comparative studies on other oral traditions: Further comparative research should examine other Southeast Asian oral traditions in relation to biblical poetry, prophecy, and wisdom literature, broadening the scope of contextual theology.

Practical frameworks for inculturation: Theological institutions and Christian organisations should develop practical models for incorporating indigenous poetry and oral traditions into Christian worship while ensuring doctrinal integrity.

Digital and educational initiatives for oral tradition preservation: There is a need for digital archiving projects to document and preserve Kayori, making it accessible for future generations and academic research. Developing interactive educational materials based on Kayori’s themes could also be beneficial for Christian discipleship in indigenous contexts.

By addressing these implications and research gaps, future studies can contribute to a more robust and faithful approach to theological inculturation, biblical interpretation, and cultural preservation.