An application for full ethical approval was submitted to the Sekolah Tinggi Teologi Injili Indonesia Surabaya (Evangelical Theological Seminary of Indonesia Surabaya), and ethical consent was granted on 08 October 2024. The ethics approval number is 00264/KEP-STTII Sby/EC/X/2024.

In the apparatus of the 2012 edition of NA28, the word φαίνεται [to appear or shine] is noted to have a variant φαίνει [shines], which appears in manuscripts D Θ ƒ1 700 (Aland et al. 2012). However, in the 5th revision of NA28 in 2014, this variant issue was not included, as the edition only addressed significant variants (Aland et al. 2014). The word φαίνεται is classified as a present middle or passive indicative verb, third person singular, while φαίνει is a present active indicative verb, third person singular (cf. Jn 1 1:5; Jn 1 2:8; Rv 1:6). The difference between the two lies solely in morphology, where φαίνεται functions as a deponent and/or passive verb (‘Middle-only’) and cannot be considered an ‘active’ verb, despite being translated in an active sense (Mounce 2019). Thus, both words carry the same meaning and can be translated as ‘shines’ or ‘appears’.

Matthew 24–25 is often referred to as Jesus’ ‘Eschatological Discourse’ (the Olivet Discourse) (Bomberg 1992) and is also identified as the ‘Apocalyptic Discourse’ (Hagner 1995). According to Talbert (2010), this discourse consists of two main sections: Matthew 24:3–36 addresses future end-time events, while Matthew 24:37–25:46 provides exhortations to remain vigilant in light of the final judgement. The first section is further divided into two subsections: the components of the end times (24:4–31) and the timing of these components (24:32–36).

The discussion in Matthew 24:4–31 begins with a description of the events anticipated before the end times (24:4–29), followed by the parousia itself (24:30–31). Verses 24:4–29 are composed of two aspects: tribulations on earth (24:4–28), where Jesus foretells various trials and deceptions that his people will endure and disturbances in heaven (24:29), which depict cosmic events accompanying the end of the age. Talbert presents the tribulations on earth (24:4–28) in an ABA’ pattern as follows:

Thus, in the broader context, Matthew 24:27 is part of the discussion on the end times and does not refer to current events. In the immediate context, Jesus warns his disciples not to believe in false prophets or individuals claiming to be the Messiah, asserting that he has already returned to obscure places, such as the desert or hidden rooms (cf. 6:6; Lk 17:23–24), even though they may perform great signs and wonders (vv. 23–26). In fact, the discourse on false messiahs and prophets begins earlier in verse 4.

Christ then illustrates the nature of his second coming by comparing it to lightning that flashes from the east to the west (v. 27) (Hagner 1995). All interpreters agree that the imagery of ‘lightning from the east to the west’ portrays the second coming of Christ as public, unmistakable and visible to all, leaving no room for doubt. His return will be universal in scope, affecting the entire earth, where every eye will see him (Bomberg 1992; Carson 1984; Hagner 1995; Keener 1999; Morris 1992; Talbert 2010; Turner 2008, among others). This statement is reinforced by several parallel texts, such as the following verse (v. 30), 2 Thessalonians 1:7, Revelation 1:7, and 19:11–16.

Therefore, the question arises: What is the sign of Christ’s second coming, as posed by the disciples earlier (v. 3)? Verse 27 provides the answer to this question. The inquiry posed by the disciples can also be interpreted as a relevant question for the church today: what is the sign of Christ’s second coming? The sign indicates that this event will be public, universal and clearly visible to all; every eye will witness him at the end of the age. This view sharply contrasts with the claims of Eastern Lightning, which asserts that Jesus has secretly returned in the form of a Chinese woman in 1991. Contextually, the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of the age, not during the present church age.

Matthew 24:27 begins with the subordinating conjunction ὥσπερ [just as], which serves as a marker of similarity between events and conditions. This conjunction is used in the protasis of a comparison, where the apodosis is introduced by the adverb οὕτως [in the same way] (Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich [BDAG]):

The use of ὥσπερ … οὕτως indicates that this passage is figurative, involving comparison and falls into the category of a ‘simile’. A simile is a comparison in which one thing is explicitly likened to another, often using the word ‘like’ or ‘as’. The main point of a simile is to highlight a specific similarity between two objects (Zuck 1991), where one part of the simile clarifies a particular aspect of the other (Tate 2012). For example, the book of Job says, ‘man… is like a flower that blooms and then withers’ (14:1–2a), comparing the brevity of human life to the short existence of a flower. The author is not interested in other characteristics of the flower, such as its colour, fragrance or shape. The comparison is straightforward and contextually clear.

When applied to Matthew 24:27, Jesus is comparing the nature of his second coming to that of lightning that flashes from the east to the west. Therefore, the question arises: what is the similarity between ‘lightning that flashes from the east to the west’ and ‘the second coming of Christ’? Or, what aspect of ‘lightning flashing from the east to the west’ explains ‘the second coming of Christ’? Thus, the phrase ‘lightning flashing from the east to the west’ should not be interpreted literally, as the meaning of the simile lies in the similarity itself (Tate 2012).

Moreover, this phrase functions as a figurative expression. In this context, Eastern Lightning misinterprets the literary genre of the expression ‘lightning flashing from the east to the west’. They tend to interpret this phrase literally, engaging in eisegesis by reading into the text their own interpretation. They view ‘lightning’ as Christ, ‘east’ as China and ‘west’ as Western nations.

Verses 29–31 outline the events of cosmic signs (v. 29), the coming of the Son of Man (v. 30), and the gathering of the elect (v. 31), which will occur ‘after’ the suffering during that time. The term ‘after’ serves as a chronological reference in this passage, alongside the words ‘immediately’ and ‘at that time’ (Culpepper 2021). Thus, the word ‘after’ indicates that the events described in verses 29–31, including the second coming of Christ, will take place following the tribulation (Turner 2006). This is also noted by France (2007):

Therefore, the phrase ‘immediately after’ signifies that the events previously recounted will occur prior to Christ’s coming. These events include (1) the emergence of false messiahs who deceive (vv. 4–5; 23–26); (2) wars, famines and earthquakes (vv. 6–8); (3) persecution, deception and apostasy (vv. 9–12); (4) the endurance of believers and evangelism (vv. 13–14); (5) the rise of the Antichrist (vv. 15–22) and (6) human life characterised by revelry and marriage (vv. 37–39). The second coming of Christ will take place immediately after this period of tribulation (Lowery 2020).

Meanwhile, at the very moment of his arrival, several events will unfold, namely: (7) chaos in the heavens, with the sun and moon losing their light and stars falling (v. 29); (8) the sign of the Son of Man appearing in heaven, and all the nations on earth mourning as they see the Son of Man coming on the clouds (v. 30); (9) angels will blow their trumpets and gather his elect from all over the world (v. 31) and (10) a global judgement (v. 39) (Evans 2012). These 10 events have not occurred from 1991 to the present, which is the time claimed by Eastern Lightning as the second coming of Christ.

This lexical analysis will focus on the meanings of two key terms in the relevant text: east [ἀνατολῶν] and west [δυσμῶν]. The term ἀνατολῶν, literally meaning ‘rising’, is closely related to the verb anatello, which can be interpreted as ‘to cause to rise’ or, in its intransitive use, ‘to rise’. In contrast, the term δυσμῶν refers to the location where the sun sets, derived from the word dusis, which means ‘sinking’ or ‘setting’. This term is also associated with the verb duno, which means ‘to sink’, thus contextually referring to the direction of the west (Vine 1981).

According to the BDAG lexicon (Danker 2000), the term ἀνατολῶν has several meanings, including: (1) the upward movement of celestial bodies, translated as ‘rising’ when used in the singular form (Danker & Krug 2009); (2) the position of the sunrise, interpreted as ‘east’ and (3) the transition from darkness to light in the morning, denoted as ‘dawn’. On the other hand, the term δυσμῶν can be understood as an action encompassing the process of setting, interpreted as ‘descending’ or ‘setting’, or as the ‘direction of sunset’, which refers to the ‘west’. The use of the adverb ἕως [until] with δυσμῶν indicates a distance towards the west (Danker & Krug 2009).

Thayer (2000) notes that the term ἀνατολῶν has two meanings: ‘rising’ and ‘west’, both referring to the direction of the sun’s rise. Meanwhile, the term δυσμῶν is defined as ‘the setting of the sun’ or, in a local context, denotes the direction of the west, the region where the sun sets. Thayer also observes that the phrase ‘from east to west’ reflects inclusivity, encompassing all regions or nations, as recorded in Matthew 8:11; 24:27; and Luke 13:29.

Thus, the terms ἀνατολῶν and δυσμῶν in the New Testament are not used to describe specific parts of the world, such as the East and the West. In the context of Matthew 24:27, these terms refer more to the directions of sunrise and sunset, from east to west. The expression ‘from east to west’ represents all regions or nations in the world, in accordance with Thayer’s assertion. Therefore, this expression emphasises that the second coming of Christ will be witnessed by all areas and nations on earth, just as lightning flashes across the entire expanse of the sky. Consequently, the interpretation by Eastern Lightning, which regards the terms ‘east’ and ‘west’ as referring to China and Western countries, does not accurately reflect the biblical meanings of these words.

Several theological questions can be raised regarding the Eastern Lightning group’s doctrine of the second coming of Christ: (1) Does this coming occur through reincarnation? (2) Is its location in China? (3) Was it fulfilled in 1991?

Firstly, the term ‘coming’ in the context of Christ’s second coming is translated from the Greek word παρουσία (Mt 24:37, 39; 1 Cor 15:23; Th 1 2:19; 3:13; 5:23; Ja 5:8; Jn 1 2:28). Derived from παρείμι, meaning ‘to be present’, this term emphasises the ‘presence’ of someone in a specific location (Radl 1990). Generally, παρουσία is understood as ‘presence’ or ‘coming’, often with the special connotation of a ‘visit’ by a king, emperor, or someone in authority to a place (Moulton & Milligan 1930). Therefore, the term παρουσία describes the manner of Christ’s second coming, namely, by directly appearing on earth in his glory as King. This event will occur with splendour and majesty, reflecting the royal and imperial nature of his ‘visit’ (Spicq 1994).

The angels in Acts 1:11 explain the manner [τρόπον] in which Christ will return, stating that he will come ‘in the same way’ [ὃντρόπον] as he ascended into heaven (Schnabel 2012). Since Christ ascended in the clouds, he will likewise return in the clouds, as prophesied in Daniel 7:13 (‘en tais nephelais’; cf. Lk 21:27; Mk 14:62b) (Barrett 1994; Bock 2007). The second coming of Christ will be accompanied by glory and power (Lk 21:27), will be public and universal, where every eye will see him (Rv 1:7) and will be accompanied by his angels (Lk 9:26; Th 2 1:7) (Peterson 2009). He will come as a victorious King, riding a white horse in accordance with ancient tradition (Rv 19:11) (Osborne 2016). Thus, the second coming of Christ will not occur through reincarnation, as taught by Eastern Lightning, but in the same glorified body seen and touched by the apostles after his resurrection (Keener 2012). This is affirmed by the demonstrative pronoun houtos [‘this same’] in Acts 1:11, which emphasises that the Jesus who ascended to heaven is the same Jesus who will return (Longenecker 2007).

Secondly, the phrase ὃν τρόπον also indicates that the location of his return will be the same as the location of his ascension – namely, the Mount of Olives (Ac 1:12) (Keener 2012). This location was prophesied as the place of the LORD’s return in Zechariah 14:4–5 (Lindsey 2018; Patterson & Hill 2006). Therefore, the claim that Christ’s return occurred in China contradicts the testimony of Scripture.

Thirdly, biblical prophecies concerning the events preceding, accompanying, and following the second coming of Christ remain unfulfilled to this day (e.g. Dn 7:13–14; Zch 14; Mt 24; 25:31–46; Rv 19:11–16, among others). The second coming of Christ is an eschatological event marking the end of this age and the beginning of the age to come (Tt 2:12–13). If Christ’s return had indeed occurred in 1991, as claimed by Eastern Lightning, this age should have already ended, and humanity would have entered the new age – an assertion clearly inconsistent with the current state of the world.