Anglican cathedrals and implicit religion: Softening the boundaries of sacred space through innovative events and installations

life of a British public house, the implicit religion of secular activities has been operationalised in diverse ways, including, for example, the practice of football (French 2002), cultural commitments (Lord 2008), the practice of belly dancing (Kraus 2009), the personality cult of Prince (Till 2010), American commercial sales organisations (Palmisano & Pannofino 2013), celebrity worship (Aruguete et al. 2014), fly-fishing (Fife 2017), knitting (Fisk 2017), straight-edge punk (Stewart 2017), consumerism (Kurenlahti & Salonen 2018), belief in science (Francis, Astley & McKenna 2018), environmentalism (McCalman 2019), High profile (and controversial) events and installations, like the Helter-Skelter in Norwich and the Crazy Golf Bridges in Rochester, have drawn attention to innovation and public engagement within Anglican cathedrals. The present study contextualised these innovations both empirically and conceptually. The empirical framework draws on cathedral websites to chronicle the wide and diverse range of events and installations hosted by Anglican cathedrals in England and the Isle of Man between 2018 and 2022. The conceptual framework draws on Edward Bailey’s theory of implicit religion to classify and to explore these events and installations. Two insights from the theory of implicit religion emerged as of particular significance. First, the notion of implicit religion softens the boundaries between the sacred and the secular. This was exemplified by eight categories of events: scientific exhibitions, festivals, musical events, art exhibitions, theatre, markets, community events and installations. Second, the notion of implicit religion draws attention to the themes and activities that generate meaning and purpose. This was exemplified by seven themes: social justice and social conscience, violence and reconciliation, remembrance, migration and sanctuary, COVID-19 and lockdowns, personal well-being and nature and environment. Contribution: Situated within the science of cathedral studies, this article identifies the range of innovative events and installations hosted by Anglican Cathedrals in England and the Isle of Man and assesses the significance of these events and installations through Edward Bailey’s lens of implicit religion, discussing first the softening of boundaries between the sacred and the secular and then the generation of meaning and purpose through the core themes raised by these events and installations.


Introduction
Bailey's concept of implicit religion softens the boundaries between the sacred and the secular (see Bailey 1997Bailey , 1998aBailey , 2002. For Bailey, the softening of these boundaries permits the concepts and analytic tools refined by those who work in departments of theology and religious studies to be liberated from their home territory and to explore phenomena that others may conceive as secular. Bailey demonstrated this aspect of implicit religion to good effect when he took up residence behind the bar of an English pub and employed his skills as a student of religious studies to explore and to interpret what he was observing (see Bailey 1997:129-192). For Bailey, the softening of these boundaries permits the focus of observation to embrace quite diverse phenomena. In his preface to the first issue of the journal Implicit Religion, he was clear that 'the areas of human life for which the study of implicit religion is relevant are legion' (Bailey 1998b:4).
Following Bailey's pioneering study of the interior life of a British public house, the implicit religion of secular activities has been operationalised in diverse ways, including, for example, the practice of football (French 2002), cultural commitments (Lord 2008), the practice of belly dancing (Kraus 2009), the personality cult of Prince (Till 2010), American commercial sales organisations (Palmisano & Pannofino 2013), celebrity worship (Aruguete et al. 2014), fly-fishing (Fife 2017), knitting (Fisk 2017), straight-edge punk (Stewart 2017), consumerism (Kurenlahti & Salonen 2018), belief in science (Francis, Astley & McKenna 2018), environmentalism (McCalman 2019), High profile (and controversial) events and installations, like the Helter-Skelter in Norwich and the Crazy Golf Bridges in Rochester, have drawn attention to innovation and public engagement within Anglican cathedrals. The present study contextualised these innovations both empirically and conceptually. The empirical framework draws on cathedral websites to chronicle the wide and diverse range of events and installations hosted by Anglican cathedrals in England and the Isle of Man between 2018 and 2022. The conceptual framework draws on Edward Bailey's theory of implicit religion to classify and to explore these events and installations. Two insights from the theory of implicit religion emerged as of particular significance. First, the notion of implicit religion softens the boundaries between the sacred and the secular. This was exemplified by eight categories of events: scientific exhibitions, festivals, musical events, art exhibitions, theatre, markets, community events and installations. Second, the notion of implicit religion draws attention to the themes and activities that generate meaning and purpose. This was exemplified by seven themes: social justice and social conscience, violence and reconciliation, remembrance, migration and sanctuary, COVID-19 and lockdowns, personal well-being and nature and environment.
Expanding on this softening of the boundaries between the sacred and the secular, Bailey's conceptualisation of implicit religion provides a heuristic tool for interrogating the presence of phenomena within secular societies that behave in ways analogous to religion. For Bailey, implicit religion may be characterised by (but is not limited to) three key qualities: Implicit religion displays commitment; it is something to which individuals feel committed. Implicit religion provides integrating foci; it is something that draws together the identity of an individual (or a group) and in doing so furnishes meaning and generates purpose. Implicit religion displays intensive concerns with extensive effects; it is something that helps to shape a worldview and carries implications for the way in which life is lived. (Francis et al. 2013:953) The softening of the boundaries between the sacred and the secular, as explored by implicit religion, has often been implemented at a conceptual level. For example, Wilson (2011) speaks of 'the aircraft's interior as a secular sacred space ' (p. 173). It is this conceptualisation of the aircraft's interior as sacred space that provided the tools for his interpretation of the dress codes for flight attendants. It is the thesis of the present paper that Anglican cathedrals offer a physical embodiment of this softening of the boundaries between the sacred and the secular and that it is precisely here where phenomena that appear to be secular may be welcomed into sacred space, and as a consequence of this welcome become accessible to interpretation through the lens of implicit religion. This thesis is grounded in discussion of three literatures and then tested more widely by an original analysis of information available on the websites of Anglican cathedrals.
The first literature is rooted in the field of implicit religion itself. Hammond (2007) (2015) changed the lens of their enquiry to explore the impact of Heelas and Woodhead's (2005) characterisation of the spiritual revolution on these visitors. Again, they recognised the softening of the boundary between the scared space and the wider spiritual quest of the secular society.
The third literature, also rooted in the science of cathedral studies, takes cognisance of the trend for Anglican cathedrals to make a conscious effort to open their sacred space to wider constituencies. This literature has a primary focus on the economic impact of cathedrals on their local economies and the part played by visitors within that context. Ecorys (2021), in their report to the Association of English Cathedrals, The economic and social impact of England's cathedrals, estimated over 9.5 million tourists or leisure visitors to cathedrals in 2019, an increase of 15% over the total of 8.2 million estimated by Ecorys (2014). This report also suggested that the enhanced footfall may be associated with the range of innovative events and exhibitions being hosted by cathedrals. In particular, the report referenced the Helter-Skelter installed in Norwich Cathedral and the Crazy Golf Bridges installed in Rochester Cathedral. Here may be the further suggestion of the softening of the boundaries between sacred space and seemingly secular pursuits.
It was not within the brief of the report produced for the Association of English Cathedrals by Ecorys (2021) to investigate the demographic profile or motivational intention of visitors to such innovative events and exhibitions. This was, however, a task undertaken by Francis et al. (in press) in relation to one specific event in one specific cathedral. The focus of their enquiry was on 196 visitors to Brecon Cathedral at the time when this cathedral functioned as an integral component of the Brecon Jazz Festival. Their data demonstrated both a different demographic profile (younger) and a different psychological type profile (more intuitive types and more perceiving types), when compared with the general profile of cathedral visitors as reported by Francis et al. (2008), Francis et al. (2010) and Francis et al. (2012).

Research question
It is against this background that the present study was designed to map the territory across which innovative events and installations were prevalent within Anglican cathedrals, as well as to reflect on the softening of the boundaries of sacred space through the lens of implicit religion. The method selected for mapping this territory drew on data currently available on cathedral websites. This is a method that had previously been employed within the field of cathedral studies by ap Siôn and Edwards (2012), Edwards and ap Siôn (2015), Curtis (2016) and Bondi and Sezzi (2021).

Method
This study was based on the websites of the 43 Anglican cathedrals within the mainland dioceses of the Church of England and the Isle of Man. Data were collected between January and March 2022. There were two initial recording units, each individual cathedral and the promoted events. 1 The information was located and saved into a separate Word document. This information consisted of the website uniform resource locator (URL), the event title along with a short description, the type of event (exhibition, installation, concert, market, etc.), when the event took place (day, evening), where (within the cathedral) the event was held, for how long it lasted (day, week, month), the cost (if known), the response (for example, visitor numbers, if provided) and the provider of the event (if detailed). At this first stage, the range of events being held in each cathedral was noted. As the material from each cathedral website was read in turn, categories started to emerge, for example, musical events, festivals, art or scientific exhibitions and community events.
Rereading of the document allowed these categories to be further broken down into subcategories. For example, musical events could be split into pop concerts and classical concerts. Thus, the analysis was done on a thematic basis (reading, rereading, categorising and grouping) that allowed comparison of events occurring across multiple cathedrals.
To reduce the potential for one-person researcher bias, a second researcher examined the website material captured (including perusing a sample of the websites) and suggested alternative and additional categories for recording the analysis. Grouping and regrouping the data by cathedral and by event allowed for identification of patterns in the data.
This process of analysis identified two analytic frameworks. The first framework focuses on the nature of the event as exemplifying the juxtaposition of the secular and the sacred within the cathedral. This framework identified eight categories: scientific exhibitions, festivals, musical events, art exhibitions, theatre, markets, community events and installations. Each of these categories suggests ways through which the location of such events within the cathedral softens the boundaries between the sacred and the secular. The second framework focuses on the integrating foci that display meaning and generate purpose. This framework identified seven themes: social justice and social conscience, violence and reconciliation, remembrance, migration and sanctuary, COVID-19 and lockdowns, personal well-being, and nature and environment. Each of these themes suggests opportunities for commitments to develop, for integrating foci to furnish meaning and to generate purpose and for intensive concerns with extensive effects to shape lives.

Softening boundaries
As part of the first analytic framework, the following eight categories were identified as examples of events that softened 1.These cathedral websites contain a huge amount of potential data in the form of text. The focus in the present study was on 'events and exhibitions' recently held or forthcoming. The information about these events was sometimes listed within an online events calendar or under specific navigation links such as 'Events', 'What's on', and 'News'. Regular and special liturgical services, guided tours of the building or its grounds, regular organ recitals or cathedral choir concerts, and activities taking place as part of cathedral 'Learning' outreach with schools and universities were not collected. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic many events and exhibitions scheduled for 2020 had to be cancelled or postponed. Despite this, events taking place been 2018 and summer 2022 were captured.
the boundaries between the secular and sacred space of the cathedral. 2

Scientific exhibitions
Perhaps the most significant events for attracting large and diverse audiences were works of art and installations with a scientific theme. to take in the Moon installation, and it was described as 'spectacular' and 'awe-inspiring', while others defined it as 'grounding', 'spiritual' and 'reflective'. Some cathedrals made a direct link between science and faith by drawing attention to the wonder of creation. The Dean of Leicester Cathedral, the Very Revd David Monteith was quoted as saying: [C]athedrals are places of wonder and discovery. We are very glad to provide another opportunity for people to be inspired, to explore, to pray, to have fun, to dance and to have our minds and hearts expanded to explore our place in God's good creation.
This event has proved so popular that it continues to tour and has started to return to some cathedrals for a second time (Leicester).
Another popular Luke Jerram touring installation, Gaia (meaning the personification of the earth), was a 3D replica of 2.Many of the sound and light installations were the creation of 'Luxmuralis', a collaboration between Peter Walker (an artist) and David Harper (a composer). For reasons of space Luxmuralis is not individually noted alongside every event discussed here, although all cathedral websites did credit each installation.
3.Citations from cathedral staff were taken from the cathedral websites at the time of data collection (January to March 2022). It is possible that some of the cited clergy may have since moved posts.
the Earth installed at the cathedrals of Gloucester, Leicester, Liverpool, Peterborough and Rochester. In 2019 at Peterborough Cathedral, there were over 22 000 visitors during a three-week residency, while at Liverpool Cathedral there were 170 000 visitors during a four-week residency. At Liverpool Cathedral, prayer stations were placed around the Cathedral to help visitors reflect on the Earth's significance in creation. It was noted that around 48 000 candles were lit while Gaia was in place, compared to 10 000 usually used in the same period. Rochester Cathedral website described how the installation allowed visitors to view the earth in the way that astronauts do, detailing how common features of the experience for astronauts 'are a feeling of awe for the planet, a profound understanding of the interconnection of all life, and a renewed sense of responsibility for taking care of the environment'.
Drawing further inspiration from the 1969 Moon landings, several other scientific installations with a space theme were hosted throughout 2019-2022. A SPACE Light & Sound installation was held at Carlisle, Exeter, Guildford and Lichfield in 2019 and in 2022 at Liverpool Cathedral. The installation transformed the interior of each Cathedral into a visual journey to the edge of the universe and back. According to Guildford Cathedral, the artwork featured a journey through space, light and time, taking viewers on a journey to the very edge of the galaxy that invited them to contemplate their own personal journeys and to reflect on the wonder of planet earth. Viewers were taken from sunrise to sunset, journeying through the beauty of planet Earth, witnessing the Sun, the oceans and the clouds 'reflected inside the majestic sacred space giving the viewer moments of awe and wonder'.
At Liverpool Cathedral, the event was subtitled Space, the Universe and Everything. At Carlisle Cathedral and at Lichfield Cathedral, the link with religion was more explicitly made where it was titled, Space, God, the Universe and Everything. At Lichfield Cathedral, it was promoted as part of a summer of science, creativity and spirituality, and was held alongside the additional events, 'Pioneers in Science', an exhibition highlighting the lives of pioneering scientists whose work has shaped the world, and 'The Laboratory', a giant laboratory held in the cathedral with activities for families. Taking the science theme in the direction of 'natural history', Dippy the Diplodocus, a 26-metre cast loaned from the Natural History Museum, was exhibited in Norwich Cathedral in 2021, the final stop and only cathedral on an eight-venue tour. More than 234 000 people visited Dippy during its 16week stay. Your Waves Go Over Me, an installation alongside Dippy at Norwich, invited visitors to walk through a 10-metre wave of 3000 fish created in the Cathedral's Hostry. This installation put the spotlight on the importance of water through the ages, from the time of dinosaurs through to the modern age. According to the website of Norwich Cathedral, the title of the sculpture was inspired by a quotation taken from the Psalms (42:9), 'All thy waves and storms are gone over me', which they stated gave acknowledgement to the fact that 'while the Bible and modern science differ about many things, they are in entire agreement that life as we know it emerged from water'.

Festivals
The opportunity to showcase the cathedral architecture and surroundings continued in the narrative to describe hosting popular festivals, often centred on flowers or alcoholic beverages, with these events bringing the cathedral buildings to life in unique and inspiring ways.

Musical events
Music was at the heart of every cathedral, providing a rich variety of both sacred and secular performances throughout the year. Many cathedrals offered ongoing series of lunchtime concerts and recitals, featuring local and international musicians (Birmingham, Manchester, Newcastle, Portsmouth

Markets
Cathedrals have frequently been used as a location for regular and one-off markets and fairs. Christmas fairs were common at many cathedrals, including Exeter and Portsmouth. At Exeter, visitors were invited to 'wander through the labyrinth of lanes that wind their way across the Cathedral green leading to a host of Christmas chalets stocked with treats for family, friends, and home'. A two-day Christmas shopping event was offered at Portsmouth Cathedral, featuring a variety of local makers and artisans with homeware, gifts and jewellery. On one of the nights, visitors could enjoy a special festive evensong service with the Portsmouth Cathedral Choir as an accompaniment to their shopping experience. At York Minster, a Christmas tree festival featured nearly 40 trees decorated to individual themes by local businesses, schools and charities. Visitors were able to vote for their favourite tree in a 'best dressed tree' competition, take part in craft activities and add their own Christmas message to a tag to hang on a prayer tree. At Worcester Cathedral, a spring fair was held within the medieval cloister. Visitors were invited to 'enjoy browsing over 20 quality craft and gift stalls in beautiful surroundings', alongside which they could listen to a series of recitals by three of the Cathedral Choir's girl choristers. In acknowledgement of interest in and awareness of the need to be more ecologically friendly, Coventry Cathedral hosted a Preloved Retail Pop-Up where clothes could be bought by weight rather than price. At Manchester Cathedral and Peterborough Cathedral, Lou Lou's Vintage Fair allowed visitors to show support for small, independent, local businesses, and at Truro Cathedral an artisan market provided over 30 stalls of 'fabulous products from gifted Cornish artisans'.

Community events
Support for the local community was evidenced in a series of initiatives and charity events. Many cathedrals were hired for use by local universities as a setting for their graduation ceremonies. At Chelmsford Cathedral, it was stated that over 5000 students and their families were welcomed annually to celebrate their achievements in the Cathedral.
From mid-January 2021 when Blackburn Cathedral was designated as a COVID-19 vaccination hub, the Dean, the Very Revd Peter Howell-Jones, noted that 'hospitality and welcome is at the heart of Christianity … we saw that with Jesus on the mountainside giving people food and drink'. In 2018, Blackburn Cathedral was the venue for a Children in Need Zumbathon that raised over £800.

Meaning and purpose
Moving on to the second analytic framework, the following seven themes were evidenced in events with an integrating foci that display meaning and generate purpose. Most of these events were located within the category of 'art exhibitions' identified as part of the first analytic framework.

Violence and reconciliation
Shining a spotlight on violence and aggression, Knife Angel, a 27-foot-high sculpture by artist Alfie Bradley and made from over 100 000 knives that have been taken out of circulation, has been sited outside several cathedrals, including Blackburn, Coventry, Gloucester, Hereford and Liverpool. At Hereford Cathedral, 102 000 people visited the statue during its visit in 2021. In addition, more than 700 school children took part in associated workshops. At a peace vigil held at Blackburn Cathedral, candles were made available for anyone who wanted to make an act of remembrance, including those who had lost loved ones through knife crime or been affected by knife crime in other ways. At Gloucester Cathedral, the dean, the Very Revd Stephen Lake, made an analogy with the religious role of angels: [T]he Cathedral is glad to act as host of the Knife Angel, which brings an important message of peace, community safety and remembrance. Angels stand for hope and an abiding confidence in the love of God.
Continuing with this theme of public art inspired by the violence, conflict and reconciliation, When discussing reactions to the installation the website of Hereford Cathedral recorded the dean of Hereford, the Very Revd Michael Tavinor, commenting that a common experience seemed to be 'one of remembrance, thanksgiving, regret and beauty', and noting that cathedral volunteers 'engaged in many deep and profound conversations' with visitors. Expanding further, he was recorded as saying: [F]or us at the cathedral, the artwork appeared as an "extension" of the building itself. It helped to bring so many elements of the Christian faith we experience inside the cathedral, those of love, faithfulness, peace, justice and hospitality, outside into Cathedral Close.

Migration and sanctuary
Two exhibitions focused on the themes of migration and sanctuary. At Coventry Cathedral, Where There is Light, an immersive sound and light installation, shared the voices and stories of sanctuary-seeking communities from across the country. It asked visitors to consider questions about where they found light in their lives, in themselves, in others and in the world around them. The same exhibition when held at Gloucester Cathedral was part of activities that celebrated 80 years since the arrival of 10 Kindertransport boys in Gloucester at the start of the Second World War. The exhibition in this context recognised the contribution made to Gloucestershire by refugees through history. A British Museum Spotlight Loan of the Lampedusa Cross, made from the remnants of a capsized refugee boat, was displayed at Coventry Cathedral and at Rochester Cathedral as part of the Crossings: Community and Refuge tour. As a City of Sanctuary, the city of Coventry has welcomed the most Syrian refugees per capita in the UK, so it was fitting that the tour started in Coventry. Activities shaped around the cross, encouraged local communities to share their own migrant experiences and to engage in discussions about identity, belonging and sharing the world. Rochester Cathedral described the cross as carrying 'poignant messages about kindness, community and the indifference faced by many refugees'. A similar installation was hosted at Canterbury Cathedral to remember the 100th anniversary of the end of the First World War. Under an Equal Sky saw a boat hanging from the Cathedral Nave and asked visitors to reflect on the plight of refugees in war and migration.

COVID-19 and lockdowns
Several exhibitions and installations drew inspiration from the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdowns of 2020 and 2021. The textile art Seen/Unseen and Reborn exhibitions at Chelmsford Cathedral were created in response to the pandemic by a clinically extremely vulnerable artist, Pauline Medinger. Seen/Unseen was 'stark in that it consisted of black and white stitching with sharp movements, and threads deliberately fragmented and in places broken or cut short'. The companion piece, Reborn, with its calming colours and golden stitches, in contrast, is described as drawing the light with its focus on cleansing and renewal. At Peterborough Cathedral, Made in Lockdown looked back at personal experiences of lockdowns, with a focus on the creativity and imagination that came to the fore. Virtual Hugs by Sally Malloy used needle felting to represent the digital icons of the apps that connected her with family and friends during lockdown. Another piece by Philippa Bandurek Bradbury captured her young son's loneliness. A Little on the Lonely Slide was set alongside music to remind visitors of the power of music to express feelings. Another thought-provoking item was a knitted blanket made by Vivien Stevenette to 'destress' while she nursed her terminally ill husband during the first lockdown.
The Leaves of the Trees was a touring Coronavirus Memorial designed by Peter Walker as a reflective aid to healing after this particularly challenging time. Between September 2020 and February 2022, it will have toured 12 cathedrals, including Exeter, Peterborough, Rochester and Southwell. The installation was made up of 5000 steel leaves, each featuring the word 'HOPE', laid out on each cathedral floor to create the impression of fallen autumn leaves. It was designed to provide individuals, families and communities with a focal point for their thoughts and reflections, encouraging them to take time to consider the periods of lockdown and isolation and providing an opportunity to reflect on their own personal journey and to honour those who passed away during the pandemic. A direct link to the Bible was highlighted on the website of Southwell Minster, 'The leaves of the trees are for the healing of the nations' (Rv 22:2), although the Dean of Southwell Minster, the Very Revd Nicola Sullivan, made it clear that it was a focal point for all, 'This is for everyone -whatever age or faith, and we invite everyone to come to their Cathedral for moments of quiet reflection'. Other cathedrals also made a direct link between the installation and faith. The Dean of Exeter, the Very Revd Jonathan Greener, noted: [P]eople have been coming to this awe-inspiring building, seeking quiet reflection, for over 800 years. So now we are delighted to host [Leaves of the Trees] ... which will bring a new way of helping visitors to remember loved ones and contemplate all that has happened over the last few months.
Visitors to the installation at Exeter Cathedral were invited to write their own thoughts, messages and prayers on paper leaves. At Peterborough Cathedral, the website stated that the exhibition: [C]ontains the Christian message about how spirituality seeks glimmers of hope and love during life's journey. It highlights the theme that there is no darkness or pain that cannot be healed by God. The decision to place the exhibition in front of the building's high altar underlines this.

Personal well-being
A concern for personal well-being was the focal point of events at the cathedrals of Ely and Hereford. At Ely Cathedral, the A Special Place exhibition provided space for the work of five textile artists who were exploring the locations that they personally found inspiring, including both local gardens and faraway places. To the visitor, they were a prompt to reflect on the secret places in their own lives where they went in search of comfort, inspiration or happiness. At Hereford Cathedral, Journey to Your Centre: The art of meditation was an exhibition of abstract pictures exploring meditation. Ely Cathedral was also the host for a series of An Evening with… events, including bestselling author and comedian Ruby Wax, 'known for using her iconic wit and expertise to equip readers with a positive roadmap for a kinder, brighter world and better mental health'. At Newcastle Cathedral a Comedy Night was promoted with the tag line, 'Comedy is great, comedy in a cathedral is better!'

Nature and the environment
A respect for nature and a concern for the environment was the focal point of events held at several cathedrals. At Ely Cathedral, Toward the Light was an exhibition of contemporary silkscreen prints on handmade leaf paper. Each sheet of leaf paper was created with an image gathered from the fields and woodlands of East Anglia and which incorporated the individual characteristics of the leaves as an integral part of each image, 'reflecting the fragile symbiotic relationship between man and the natural environment'. [F]ind the space to reflect on their own lives, human existence and the creation of the earth and our universe. I hope it also provokes some thoughts about the ecology and the beauty of the world around us, and our impact on it.
At Newcastle Cathedral, two installations were held in support of the COP26 Conference. River of Prayer was an interactive textile piece encouraging prayer and contemplation. Inspired by the words from Amos (5:24) 'Let justice roll on like a river, righteousness like a never-failing stream!' the aim was to inspire visitors to work and pray for climate justice, together with communities living in poverty around the world. Make Your Mark (on our world) was an interactive exhibition consisting of illustrations of six of the world's most endangered animals. The aim was to encourage each person to take small steps to tackle the climate crisis so that collectively those small steps might contribute to bigger change. These exhibitions were promoting positive action as a vehicle to achieve change in the world. At Truro Cathedral, a Green Fair was held and was focused on the environment and climate change. It included a speaker's corner for visitors to show others what they were doing, find out what others were doing, or to just have their say.

Conclusion
In their report to the Association of English Cathedrals, The economic and social impact of English cathedrals, Ecorys (2021) suggested that the enhanced footfall reported between 2014 and 2019 may be associated with the range of innovative events and exhibitions being hosted by cathedrals. In particular, the report referenced Helter-Skelter installed in Norwich Cathedral and Crazy Golf Bridges installed in Rochester Cathedral. It was not, however, within the remit of this report to chronicle the full range of events and installations evident within the 43 Anglican cathedrals in England and the Isle of Man or to assess the wider religious significance of such events. Against this background, the aim of the present paper was to contextualise the observations made by Ecorys (2021) both empirically and conceptually.
From an empirical perspective, we set out to glean what could be learned from a systematic review of the 43 cathedral websites about the range and diversity of events and installations hosted by Anglican cathedrals in England and the Isle of Man since 2018. This empirical approach proved to be a stimulating and worthwhile initiative. The strength of the method is that, in principle, each cathedral was given an equal opportunity for its voice to be heard. The weakness is that not all cathedrals conceptualise their websites in the same way. As cathedrals become more aware of the archival research potential afforded by their websites, so this source of information may become more fully curated.
From a conceptual perspective, we set out to explore and analyse the data generated from the websites through the lens shaped by Edward Bailey's theory of implicit religion. This conceptual approach proved to be fruitful, especially in respect of two core ideas advanced by the theory of implicit religion. Firstly, the notion of implicit religion softens the boundaries between the sacred and the secular. Analysis of the data generated from the websites identified eight categories of events and installations, each of which offered evidence for the softening of boundaries between sacred and secular through the ways in which cathedrals were hosting and interpreting secular events and installations within their sacred space. Examples were offered of ways in which these boundaries were softened in relation to the Secondly, the notion of implicit religion draws attention to how phenomena within secular societies behave in ways analogous to religion. For Bailey, implicit religion may be characterised by three key qualities: commitment, integrating foci and intensive concerns with extensive effect. Analysis of the data generated from the websites identified seven themes with high saliency for generating meaning and purpose: social justice and social conscience, including themes focusing on racial justice and the Caribbean diaspora, on the forgotten soldiers of the Second World War and on modern slavery and human trafficking; violence and reconciliation, including themes focusing on knife crime, community reconciliation and peace; remembrance, including installations themed as Poppy Field, Poppies: Weeping Window and Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red; migration and sanctuary, focusing on both historic and contemporary displaced peoples, including the Kindertransport children and Syrian refugees; COVID-19 and lockdown, including exhibitions by clinically vulnerable professional artists and accounts of the livedexperience of lockdown and isolation; personal well-being, including exhibitions designed to prompt visitors to reflect on the secret places in their own lives where they went in search of comfort, inspiration or happiness; and nature and the environment, including a series of abstract displays that transported visitors from sunrise to sunset, immersed in the beauty of planet earth and the universe and exhibitions designed to focus concern for climate change or endangered species.
Taken together, these empirical data and Bailey's theory of implicit religion have identified the important contribution that Anglican cathedrals are making to the overall ministry and mission to which the Church of England is committed.
In his analysis of the distinctive position of the Anglican Church within the religious landscape in England, Walker (2017) described four ways in which belonging to God through the Church of England may be considered. Developed initially in a series of theoretical and empirical studies reported by Walker (2006Walker ( , 2009Walker ( , 2010aWalker ( , 2010b, these four ways of belonging are characterised as belonging through activities, belonging through events, belonging through people, and belonging through place. One core strength of Anglican cathedrals concerns the way in which their doors stand open and welcoming to all. The threshold that needs to be crossed to enter this sacred space is relatively low. Softening the boundaries of sacred space through innovative events and installations may enable individuals motivated by all four of Walker's ways of belonging to meet on common ground. The report by Ecorys (2021) suggested that growth in the numbers of those who step across that threshold may have been enhanced by the innovative events and installations that beckon visitors into that sacred space. The present analysis suggests that the impact of such events and installations should not be calculated only in terms of economic and social impact. Viewed through the lens afforded by Edward Bailey's theory of implicit religion, the impact should also be calculated in terms of religious and personal benefit accruing to the individuals who cross that threshold. Once inside the sacred space the religious dimension of life becomes more accessible and more broadly interpreted in line with softening boundaries between sacred space and secular phenomena. Once inside the sacred space these events and installations are drawing attention to markers of profound human significance and open up possibilities for reflection on and engagement with keys themes carrying potential to transform perspectives, to generate commitment, to form integrating foci and to become matters of intensive concern with extensive effects.
The empirical evidence on which the present analysis has been constructed has been provided by the cathedrals themselves through their websites. What is now required is a detailed study of the visitors themselves, drawing on both qualitative and quantitative survey techniques.

Limitations
The data presented in this paper were drawn from cathedral websites. There are three main limitations with research of this nature. Firstly, websites are ephemeral: information can change on a daily, weekly, monthly or yearly basis. What information is chosen to share, how often each page is updated and for how long material is made available differs across websites. Several of the 43 cathedrals may well have held events and exhibitions that the current research will not have captured, because the information had since been removed from the website or its URL hidden. Secondly, there is no consistent practice among cathedrals regarding the preservation of data. Some cathedrals held 'news' archives that went back a matter of weeks (Derby, Durham), others that extended to over 40 pages (Canterbury, Exeter) and others going back years (Guildford to 2008, Sheffield to 2015). Thirdly, cathedral websites were not generally structured to serve research of this kind. The cathedral websites will have been created by the cathedral community for their own purposes both to communicate positively their event activity and its impact, and to draw visitors in. Triangulation by way of greater cross-comparison with material shared on other forms of social media (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, local newspapers) may have provided further data but was beyond the scope and time limits of the present study.