Beyond the quadrilateral: The place of nature in John Wesley’s epistemology of theology

share of interest; but attention has also been given to mathematics, history, aesthetics, and ethics. The crucial warrant for these later developments goes back to Aristotle’s insistence [… that ] we should fit our epistemic evaluations in an appropriate way to the subject matter under investigation As a result, we do not expect historical claims to be evaluated by the kind of arguments that would apply to mathematics and the natural sciences. Surprisingly – given the attention directed to theological claims and the wealth of materials in both theology and philosophy – this principle has not been systematically explored in the case of theology […] By epistemology of theology, we mean a critical enquiry of appropriate epistemic concepts and theories in or related to theology. This involves examining and articulating what counts as appropriate epistemic evaluation in theology. The wide-ranging nature of this kind of enquiry can be seen in the following distinction. On the one hand, this volume focuses on standard epistemic concepts that are usually thought of as questions about norms and sources of theology (e.g


Introduction
The term 'epistemology' refers to theories of knowledge in general. However, in recent years the late Methodist scholar William Abraham (1946Abraham ( -2021 has argued for the creation of a new subdiscipline for examining the 'epistemology of theology' which is used to describe the epistemological issues that arise specifically within theology (Abraham 2006:14;Greco 2017:11) Abraham's introduction to the Oxford Handbook on this subject offers the following definition and outlines the contours of this field: It has been commonplace in epistemology […] to explore in detail the epistemology of particular academic disciplines. The epistemology of science, for example, has received the lion's share of interest; but attention has also been given to mathematics, history, aesthetics, and ethics. The crucial warrant for these later developments goes back to Aristotle's insistence [… that] we should fit our epistemic evaluations in an appropriate way to the subject matter under investigation As a result, we do not expect historical claims to be evaluated by the kind of arguments that would apply to mathematics and the natural sciences. Surprisingly -given the attention directed to theological claims and the wealth of materials in both theology and philosophy -this principle has not been systematically explored in the case of theology […] By epistemology of theology, we mean a critical enquiry of appropriate epistemic concepts and theories in or related to theology. This involves examining and articulating what counts as appropriate epistemic evaluation in theology. The wide-ranging nature of this kind of enquiry can be seen in the following distinction. On the one hand, this volume focuses on standard epistemic concepts that are usually thought of as questions about norms and sources of theology (e.g. reason; experience; tradition; scripture; revelation). On the other hand, it explores some general epistemic concepts that can be related to theology. (Abraham & Aquino 2017:1) In this introduction, Abraham highlights a principle which he calls epistemic fit, which holds that epistemological evaluation should be appropriate to the subject. In doing so, he is inspired by  contention in his Nicomachean Ethics that each field of knowledge demands a different kind of precision: Many writers have sought to outline Wesley's conception of how human beings obtain revelational knowledge. In this regard, the use of what has been dubbed the Wesleyan quadrilateral continues to remain widespread in both the academy and the pulpit. However, this presentation of Wesley's thought has received severe criticism from the late William Abraham, philosopher of religion and Methodist commentator. He has proposed the creation of a new subdiscipline in epistemology for examining theology. This view has prompted a handful of attempts to extrapolate John Wesley's epistemology of theology from his various writings. The present essay will contribute to this discussion by examining Wesley's approach to these questions. In doing so, it explores mainly the function and place of nature in Wesley's theological reflections. Drawing mainly upon Wesley's A View of the Wisdom of God in Creation (1763), this essay shows that the natural world (read: creation) played an important, neglected role in Wesley's epistemology of theology.
http://www.hts.org.za Open Access Our account will be adequate if its clarity is in line with the subject-matter, because the same degree of precision is not to be sought in all discussions, any more than in works of craftsmanship. The spheres of what is noble and what is just, which political science examines, admit of a good deal of diversity and variation, so that they seem to exist only by convention and not by nature. Goods vary in this way as well, since it happens that, for many, good things have harmful consequences: some people have been ruined by wealth, and others by courage. So we should be content, since we are discussing things like these in such a way, to demonstrate the truth sketchily and in outline, and, because we are making generalizations on the basis of generalizations, to draw conclusions along the same lines. Indeed, the details of our claims, then, should be looked at in the same way, since it is a mark of an educated person to look in each area for only that degree of accuracy that the nature of the subject permits. Accepting from a mathematician claims that are mere probabilities seems rather like demanding logical proofs from a rhetorician. (Aristotle 2004 Guided by this principle (epistemic fit), contributors to the Epistemology of Theology explore what constitutes appropriate epistemological evaluation in theology by examining the work of many Christian thinkers across the centuries. In line with this approach, this article will examine John Wesley's thought with a particular focus on the role played by nature in his epistemology of theology. It will survey earlier approaches to Wesley's conception of how we obtain knowledge of God. It will also draw upon two definitive studies of this aspect of Wesley's thought, the first by William Abraham himself (2010) and the second by his former student, Douglas Koskela, who wrote a chapter on John Wesley's approach to the epistemology of theology in the handbook mentioned here (Koskela 2017).

Problematic approaches to Wesley and the epistemology of theology
Whilst studies have been carried out on Wesley's general epistemological outlook (Long 2005:64-66;Matthews 1986) few writers have explicitly focused on examining Wesley's thoughts about the epistemology of theology. Nevertheless, long before the Oxford Handbook to the Epistemology of Theology was published, a strategy taken by both scholars and ordinary Methodists is referred to as the 'Wesleyan Quadrilateral' (Outler 1964:iv). According to Outler, Wesley placed scripture as a 'pre-eminent norm' but 'interfaced' this with 'tradition, reason and Christian experience' -the latter functioning as 'dynamic and interactive aids in the interpretation of the Word of God in Scripture' (Outler 1985:9-10) ( Figure 1).
Unfortunately, Outler's caricature of the Anglican tradition overly simplified his understanding of John Wesley's approach (Outler 1985:9-10;Toon 2010:37). 1 Although the scope of the present enquiry requires us to put these historical criticisms aside, it is sufficient to say here that Outler's oversimplification obscures the nuance in Wesley's approach to these questions (Pratt Morris-Chapman 2010:3-4, 2018a:1-2).
A more detailed analysis of Wesley's approach to the epistemology of theology is found in a series of published lectures, entitled Aldersgate and Athens, given by Abraham (2010 Here Abraham points out that it is not only Wesley's own experience of the fulfilment of this promise that is significant here but his attention to the fulfilment of this divine promise in a plethora of comparable experiences present in the Methodist revival, which is saturated by accounts of this kind of experience. Hence whilst, individually, Wesley's experience carries limited significance, the recurrence of the fulfilment of the promise of assurance throughout Christian communities across time and space provides evidence in favour of this divine promise. Concerning the second point, (2) Abraham (2010)  Here Abraham contended that where Wesley encountered 'conspicuous' instances of holiness in the lives of believers or extra-special 'charismatic phenomena', he considered these to be evidence of God's reality. Hence, 'suppose we meet someone who exhibits' the kind of perfect sacrificial love found in the gospels; then 'our scepticism about God may be checked, and we may well be drawn to believe in God' (Abraham 2010:43-44).
Finally, (3) Abraham (2010) explores the significance of personal experience for Wesley's epistemology of theology: Wesley provides an explicit theory to undergird his claim of possessing knowledge of God. He insists that what is at stake is nothing less than perception of the divine. Just by our ordinary physical senses we perceive the world around us, so by means of our spiritual senses we perceive [God]. (p. 28) At this juncture, Abraham complements his discussion of Wesley's thought by bringing it into dialogue with contemporary writers such as Alvin Plantinga and William Alston (Abraham 2010:30;Alston 1991;Plantinga 2000). Unfortunately, this impairs Abraham's reception because he conflates Plantinga's Calvinistic rendition of the 'cognitive consequences' of sin with Wesley's thought (Plantinga 2000:184). This leads Abraham to the mistaken conclusion that, without faith, Wesley considered human beings to be incapable of obtaining theological knowledge (Abraham 2010:26-27, 58). The implications of this are significant for our purposes because it leads Abraham to the erroneous conclusion that Wesley's theological epistemology 'eschewed the help of any appeal' to nature or inferential reflection upon the natural world. As a result of this, Abraham contends that Wesley did not believe we can obtain knowledge of God from the natural world (Abraham 2010:4) ( Figure 2).  (Koskela 2017:468). Thus, what may be considered a direct perception of God for one person becomes a testimony for another person, including testimonies to conversion, conspicuous sanctity, charismatic phenomena and miracles. All of these testify to fulfilling what is promised in Scripture (Koskela 2017:468).
In summary, Koskela considers that Wesley prioritised divine revelation, God's testimony (Old and New) recorded in the divinely inspired scriptures, the corporate faith of the church, the direct perception of God in religious experience and the testimony of Christian people to God's power over the centuries (Figure 3).

Divine revelation
The Incarnation The Scriptures The gift of faith  (Collier 1924;Hargitt 1907;Mills 1893). However, Felleman points out the problematic nature of these comparisons, given that the methodology deployed by the natural philosophers of Wesley's day differs considerably from the scientific method (Felleman 2006a:68-71;Schofield 1953:331). Indeed, drawing upon the writings of natural philosophers, Wesley intended to show that knowledge of God can be obtained by analysing the creation (Cunningham 1991:380 (Felleman 2006b:173;Maddox 2009:26). 9 Therefore, whilst there is little that might 7.Anyone who actually picks up these hefty volumes can obtain empirical evidence that Wesley believed the created, natural world furnishes Christians with a knowledge of God.
8.This is true in many of his publications (Pratt Morris-Chapman 2019b).
9.Wesley's decision to publish these volumes (three times) demonstrates his interest in the natural world and, moreover, his redactions indicate that these writings are reflective of his own opinions.
be considered original in Wesley's foray into natural philosophy, his venture offers insights into the role played by nature in his epistemology of theology.

Wesley's digressions
In the introduction to his compendium, Wesley (1763) clarifies that what may appear to be theological digressions are a central part of the work: I must apprise the Reader that I have sometimes a little digressed by reciting both uncommon Appearances of Nature … And yet this is not properly a Digression from the main Design I have in view. For surely in these Appearances also the Wisdom of God is displayed. (p. v) Here, Wesley clarifies that the purpose of this work is to present a summary of the available knowledge concerning the natural world and illustrate how this reveals knowledge of God.

A view of the wisdom of god in the human body
Wesley begins in volume one with contemplation of how the human body reflects the wisdom of God. Here he finds it displayed in the body's 'remarkable' design (Wesley 1763:19). For example, the ear is 'formed with exquisite wisdom for the reception of sounds' (Wesley 1763:32). Likewise, concerning the mouth, 'what less than an infinitely wise God could conceive of so fine an organ' since it is 'so susceptible of every impression that the sense of hearing have [sic] occasion for' (Wesley 1763:35). Moreover, he sees God's wisdom displayed in the great diversity present within the human race. Our 'faces', our 'voices' and even our 'hand writing' testify to the wisdom of the creator who 'has taken care' to distinguish us from one another uniquely and specifically (Wesley 1770:89). Reflecting upon this, Wesley cannot help but 'acknowledge the consummate wisdom wherewith' the body is formed (Wesley 1770:37). In addition, he also finds a confirmation of the scriptural record in the body's design, because he believes it affirms 'our noble original' state before the fall of humankind (Wesley 1763:61). Likewise, from our 'mortal' condition, he finds support for the veracity of the same portion of scripture: How admirably has God secured the Execution of his Original Sentence upon every Child of Man Dust thou art and unto dust shalt thou return. From the moment we live we prepare for Death. (Wesley 1763:89) Here, in his reflection on the human body, Wesley finds confirmation of the creation narrative and obtains insights concerning God's character from the creation. However, before closing this section, it is essential to highlight that Wesley also acknowledges the limits of human reason. For example, in his discussion of human conception, he admits that how 'seeds' whether 'male or female' grow in the womb 'abundantly transcends the highest reach of human understanding' (Wesley 1763:95). Thus, whilst he believed knowledge about God is obtainable from the creation, he repeatedly stressed the limitations of this knowledge.

A view of the wisdom of god in the natural world
Wesley proceeds from here to discuss how the four fundamental elements, 'earth, water, air and fire illuminate the character of God' (Wesley 1763:93). Wesley's reflections illustrate how each offers confirmation of the revelation already revealed in the scriptural record and an insight into the creator's character (Wesley 1777:314). Drawing upon the work of the natural philosopher (and clergyman) William Derham, Wesley finds the 'wisdom' of God displayed in the movement of the Earth and the orbit of the planets. Hence, whilst he recognises the gravitational power of the Sun, it is the 'Creator' who has set the planets in motion. This not only reveals God's 'power' but discloses the 'Almighty['s]' intimate concern for the world (Derham 1750:41;Wesley 1777:309).
Wesley obtains similar insights from the abundant provision of water through rain, rivers and seas. Citing the natural historian Noël-Antoine Pluche, he reflects upon how the course of a river illustrates the character of God's love. For example, the generosity and provision of God is emphasised when the 'All wise' creator 'showers' the earth with water. From the mountain tops to the valleys below, this brings life by providing water and increasing food production. This system's abundance, provision and harmony should assure believers of God's 'gracious' character (Pluche & Humphreys 1750:111;Wesley 1763:41). A similar idea is found in discussing the movement of fish in the oceans. Here God's love is discerned in the bountiful provision of fish, which come close to the shore when they are in their prime, offering humankind a rich supply of food (Wesley 1763:52).Citing James Hervey's (a member of the Holy Club at Oxford) reflections on the natural world, the 'indulgent' nature of God's provision for humankind is discerned (Hervey 1837:384;Wesley 1763:52). God's grace is even discerned in the tiniest of sea creaturesfor whom the creator has provided shells for protection. This again illumines God's loving character (Wesley 1777:70).
In addition to the illumination of God's great mercy and generous love, Wesley also discerns the extraordinary greatness of the almighty in the waves and movements of the tides. Concerning the former, he notes how waves 'surge from world to world' in a 'spectacle of magnificence and terror' which fills the 'mind and amazes the imagination' with an awe for the 'almighty', who in his 'wisdom' controls them all with a 'power absolutely incomprehensible' (Wesley 1777:68). A similar theme occurs in Wesley's reflections on Patrick Brydone's (a writer and member of the Royal Society) description of Mount Etna, whereby volcanic fire offered an insight into the nature of hell and judgement (Brydone 1773:196;Wesley 1777:111). However, in addition to this, Wesley also discerns God's generous and abundant provision, for volcanoes promote fertility in the soil and act as God's 'great plough' (Wesley 1777:123). In a similar vein, the generous character of God is perceived in the 'abundant' provision of oxygen throughout the creation (Hales 1731:312;Wesley 1777:180). As before, Wesley considers that the 'whole universe is a picture in which are displayed' God's perfect wisdom and love (Wesley 1763:284-286).

Divine revelation
The Incarnation The Scriptures The gift of faith Divine revelation -'Preventing Grace' -in the Natural World The given hexalateral illustrates Wesley's approach as he perceives the 'wisdom', 'goodness', 'love' and generous 'care' of God to be displayed in the natural world. This knowledge is confirmatory because it illumines the faith he antecedently possesses and offers further insights into the character of God (Wesley 1777:210-211). However, in saying this, it is essential to clarify that, for Wesley (1763), the gift of revelation through faith is paramount: The relation we bear to God as our creator which was partly discovered by the light of nature is made nearer yet and more dear and engaging by that entirely new distinction in the One God revealed to us under the different characters of Father Son and Holy Ghost and by the unspeakable blessings we derive from their several offices and operations. This distinction utterly incomprehensible in itself could never have been known to men but by revelation. Nor could we have conceived it in any degree had it not been discovered to us under the semblance of such relations as are familiar among men as that of a Father and a Son and the Spirit of a man which is in him. (p. 231) Here Wesley (1763) is emphatic that Trinitarian faith is inaccessible to us unless we have divine revelation. He continued: Since both reason and Revelation show there is but one God we can own and worship but one. And since that one God is set forth to us in scripture under three distinct relations and accordingly represented by distinct personal names and characters and operations and offices therefore we worship but one God with this distinction of his own making not of ours. (p. 233) In sum, whilst Wesley believes knowledge of God is possible from nature, it is through the 'gospel revelation' that a complete theological 'knowledge' is obtained (Wesley 1763:235). However, whilst Wesley is clear on this point, he ends the work with a sharp challenge to those who would 'imagine all enquiry of this kind to be vain'. Equally, he critiques those who give too much emphasis to nature so that their theology ceases to be 'consistent' with revealed 'religion' (Wesley 1763:238). Thus, for Wesley, the gift of revelation is primary. Nevertheless, given that he considers 'all the light of nature so called to flow from preventing grace' then it is clear that 'the general knowledge we have by the light of nature' is also a result of divine revelation in the created order. Hence, all the information gleaned from the natural world exists because of God showering grace and truth upon the world. Thus, whilst Wesley believes the 'relations' within the godhead, and indeed the 'relations we bear to God and God to us', are entirely 'undiscoverable by the light of nature', it is evident that nature does play a role in his epistemology of theology.

Conclusion
In the given discussion, it is clear that Wesley does afford a role to nature in his epistemology of theology. Perhaps the best possible summary of his position is found in the preface to this work: the natural world 'display[s] the amazing Power Wisdom and Goodness of the great Creator to warm our Hearts and to fill our Mouths with Wonder Love and Praise' (Wesley 1763:6). Whilst Wesley does not overestimate its epistemic force, he nevertheless considers that this source of information illumines the character of God, assuring believers and providing them with insights into the concern that God the Father has for them and the world (Felleman 2007:189-190). Therefore, contrary to the position held by Abraham and Koskela, nature plays a confirmatory and assuring role for believers in a Wesleyan approach to the epistemology of theology.