Cities and villages in the religious conflict circle: Socio-demographic factors of communal and sectarian conflict in West Java, Indonesia

Java. It can be used as an illustration for other regions in Indonesia and Southeast Asia.


Introduction
status, power and resources involving religious issues or issues framed in religious slogans or expressions (Ali Fauzi, Alam & Panggabean 2009:7). It is related to sociodemographic factors in which differences in urban and rural sociological characteristics cannot be separated from economic determination factors. The socio-demographic conditions greatly influence the tendency of different forms of conflict in each region. The urban social conditions (urban), which are heterogeneous, multi-religious and ethnic, for example, have an impact on the form of communal conflicts amongst religious groups between Muslims and Christians such as in the Ambon and Poso cases in 2000-2002(Dandirwalu & Rehy 2020Iqbal 2015:237). On the other hand, the homogeneous rural social condition (rural) affects the form of internal sectarian conflict amongst religious communities or fellow Muslims, as seen in the case of Ahmadiyah in Cikeusik in 2011 (Scherpen 2011). This study is important to show that various religious conflicts in different regions in Indonesia are closely related to the sociodemographic conditions of each region.
Based on Toennis' category, strong individuality amid high immigrants causes urban communities (gesellchaft) to have high levels of contact with interfaith adherents. It is in contrast to rural communities (gemeinschaft), which have intimate family relationships. The unity of morality and religion makes contact with various religions less prominent than internal religious adherents (Stolley 2005:169;Toennies 1963). So, the tendency of the conflict in each case is different. The socio-demographic conditions of religious adherents influence it. Thus, knowledge of differences in sociodemographic conditions in each region is very important because it will determine the form, causes and conflicts handling in each region.
This study focuses on the socio-demographic aspect as a point of view in analysing religious conflict in West Java. The 11 districts or cities which are the locus of this research include: Bekasi Regency, Bekasi City, Bogor Regency, Bogor City, Cianjur Regency, Bandung regency, Bandung City, Cimahi City, Garut Regency, Tasikmalaya Regency and Kuningan Regency. These 11 regions have a high level of religious conflict. A series of observations and interviews for data collection were carried out, especially with the Forum Kerukunan Umat Beragama (Religious Harmony Forum) at the provincial and regency/city levels in Indonesia. The data analysis used is a qualitative approach through data display, data reduction, interpretation and conclusion.
Several previous studies did not consider socio-demographic factors in analysing religious conflict in West Java. Marshall's study, for example, asked why this area became home to some of the greatest acts of intolerance in Indonesia. Does it reflect a different cultural pattern from the Sundanese people who mostly live there or show the tensions produced by modernisation that have created many conflicts in the world? (Marshall 2018). Other previous studies (Sulistio 2018) on intolerance acts in church construction cases in Bekasi also did not consider this socio-demographic factor. So did the scholars examining attacks on Ahmadiyah, Shia, Gafatar and other minority groups in West Java (Burhani 2020;Makin 2019;Nurdin & Kharlie 2019;Zulkifli 2009).

Religious conflict in West Java
Lewis Coser referred to conflict as 'a struggle over values and claims to secure status, power and resources, a struggle in which the main aims of opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate rivals' (Coser 1956). For the purpose this study, religious conflict is defined as a feud concerning status, power and resources involving religious issues or issues framed in religious slogans or expressions (Ali Fauzi et al. 2009:7). It is related to socio-demographic factors in which differences in urban and rural sociological characteristics are strongly influenced by economic determination factors. The city as an economic and trade centre affects the diversity of its people so that it has an impact on forms of communal conflict amongst religious people. In contrast, the rural areas tend to be homogeneous and affect the sectarian internal conflict amongst the religious people or fellow Muslims. Based on these above mentioned reports, West Java Province ranks the highest with the highest number of violations, becoming the most intolerant area in Indonesia. The Setara Institute data mention that out of the 62 cases in Indonesia, 13 cases of violations were recorded in West Java. The rest happened in a number of other provinces. Whilst the Wahid Institute data show that out of the 190 cases of violations, 46 cases were from West Java (The Wahid Institute 2015). The rest are spread over in other provinces, such as Aceh (36 cases), DKI Jakarta (23), Yogyakarta (10), East Java (9), Lampung (8), Banten (7) and Central Java (7). Some cases of such violations occurred in the attack on the Ahmadiyah community in Manis Lor, Tasikmalaya, Garut, Cianjur and others.
The question that arises is why does West Java province ranks the highest in cases of violations of religious freedom and belief in Indonesia, whereas inhabited by Sundanese it is known as one of the areas rich in traditional values and local wisdom in Indonesia. Many  Sociologically, the increase in cases of such violations is not only related to the religious doctrine but also the situation of social change in West Java. The shift of culture and social structure from village to city and from agrarian to industrial, impacts the lives of its increasingly heterogeneous people. As an area adjacent to the nation's capital, DKI Jakarta, the presence of migrants from various regions in Indonesia and abroad is inevitable.
As an ethnically and religiously heterogeneous region, West Java is known for a variety of potential conflicts. Uncontrolled displacement has been one of the triggering factors for internal and interfaith conflicts. The high level of migration germinates competition and friction that leads to the dominance of immigrant groups in the economic field. It creates an inequal social relationship between migrants and local residents, thus triggering potential social conflicts (Iqbal 2015:237).
There have been a number of cases of social conflict in West Java over the last two decades since the reform era in 1998. A number of cases of socio-religious conflicts, either internal or interfaith, are in the case of houses of worship, religious understanding, blasphemy, conflicts of interest of religious leaders and demonstrations of religious attributes (Ali 2013:248-249). Cases of houses of worship appear evenly in almost all areas of the city/regency in West Java in the form of the use of residences or businesses as houses of worship and rejection of citizens to other religious houses of worship and the issue of Christianisation. Certain religious issues develop in the internal environment of mainstream religion. Blasphemy occurs in the case of banning prayers, wearing of headscarves, destruction of statues of Mother Mary, religious insults and others. Conflicts of interest of religious leaders occur amongst Muslims and Christians resulting in conflicts between both supporters. Whilst religious demonstrations involving the masses along with violent acts committed against entertainment venues, support for the enforcement of sharia local regulations, political competition in elections and others. Table 1 details some of the areas prone to religious conflict in West Java over the last two decades based on data from socio-religious research institutes. Table 1 shows a number of regencies/cities in West Java as the place where cases of religious conflict occur. There are two different locus tendencies, namely regencies and cities. The next section will be directed at the analysis of the spread of religious conflicts in West Java based on the differences between the two locales. The explanation is useful to clearly map the differences in conflict characteristics in the two areas so that a better understanding is obtained.

Town and village characteristics in religious conflict
There are two main areas in this article, namely regencies and cities in West Java. Both have different potential for religious conflict. Geographically, cities have a higher level of population heterogeneity than regencies. Cities tend to be more plural and heterogeneous ethnically and in custom. The attitude of urban people tends to be individualistic, rational, thus leading to secularity. Homogeneous religious ties are not particularly prominent. The position of religious leaders is also not too dominant. Therefore, in urban areas, religious homogeneity tends to decrease, and heterogeneity and religious freedom tend to be high. Religious adherents and types of worship places are also very diverse. Besides, the lifestyle and social system of the urban community have also undergone a shift. As a result of the high level of population density, there is a change in land use in urban areas that has resulted in smaller availability of land.
Socio-anthropologically, urban areas in West Java have been transformed into cultural faults, where socio-religious groups from various religions meet because of their high level of urbanisation. In these areas, there are diverse elements of social class (strata), ethnicity, religion, culture, customs, language and gender, and people tend to live independently without mixing each other (Nasikun 1986:31).
It is in contrast with rural areas, where the level of community homogeneity is very dominant. In rural areas, indigenous people are the dominant inhabitants because migration from  (Burhani 2014). In addition to Ahmadiyah cases, religious conflicts also occurred between the Anti-Shia National Alliance, that represents Sunni Islam, and the followers of Shia Islam in Bogor, Bandung and several other areas in West Java (Syarif, Zulkarnain & Sofjan 2017). Conflicts that occur internally amongst a group of fellow Muslims or Ahmadiyah and Shia groups generally occur in rural areas which are predominately inhabited by homogeneous religious adherents.
Internal religious conflicts in rural areas are different from religious conflicts that occur in urban areas. Geographically, the cities have a higher level of population heterogeneity compared to regencies. Urban areas tend to be more ethnically and religiously plural. Therefore, the prominent religious conflicts in urban areas are communal conflicts between religious communities such as in the case of the construction of the HKBP Filadelfia house of worship in Bekasi and Buddhist and Hindu houses of worship in 2019. Therefore, the socio-demographic factors of the village community and cities in West Java are one of the important factors that distinguish the characteristics of religious conflict in various regions in West Java.

Communal and sectarian issues in villages and cities
Generally, the characters of religious conflict in West Java cannot be separated from the issue of religious identity that is framed in religious slogans or expressions. The religious issues are indisputably related to the teachings or doctrines of a religion. Meanwhile, the issue framed in religious slogans or expressions are more general issues that are regarded to have a connection with their religious teachings or doctrines.
Many religious issues have emerged during the various religious conflicts that have occurred in West Java, for example, moral, sectarian, communal, terrorist, politicoreligious and the mystical religious subculture issues such as witchcraft, divination and so on (Ali Fauzi et al. 2009:9-10). Out of these religious issues, sectarian and communal issues are the two most prominent issues in the 11 regencies and cities in West Java.  Table 2). As previously explained, the characteristics of urban areas are high urbanisation and social, economic, cultural and religious heterogeneity. Religious diversity in urban areas occurs along with the heterogeneity of the population itself. 4. The cultural patterns and behaviour of newcomers vary.
5. The role of local community leaders, including clerics and other religious groups, still dominates the behaviour and attitudes of the community.
5. The community is more open, rational and high tolerance.
-6. They are the economic centres and centres of trade and services.
-7. The community is more focused on economic and business activities.
Source : Nasikun, 1986, Sistem Sosial Indonesia, Rajawali Press, Jakarta Therefore, it is justifiable that it also affects the religious diversity and the intensity of the construction of worship places such as churches. For instance, the case of communal conflicts between Muslims and Christians related to the construction of churches such as GKI Yasmin Bogor. The Muslims who opposed the construction of the church questioned the permit of construction, the use of public facilities for worship places, the residents' protests and the revocation of the permit for the worship place.
Religious conflicts in urban areas related to the construction of worship places continue to occur even though the Indonesian government has established SKB No.1/Ber/ MDN-MAG/1969 concerning the implementation of government apparatus duties in ensuring order and smooth implementation of religious development and worship by its adherents and the Joint Regulation of the Minister of Religion and the Minister of Home Affairs Number 8 of 2006 and Number 9 of 2006 concerning Guidelines for Implementation of Tasks Regional Heads/Deputy Regional Heads in maintaining Religious Harmony, Empowering Religious Harmony Forums and establishing houses of worship (Rumadi 2007:10-11). This is partly because the regulations have multiple interpretations regarding who the local government is, the government officials who are empowered to do so, and the religious organisations and the local ulama or clergy (Kustini 2009:2). Thus, the regulations made it more difficult for minorities to obtain rightful permission to build places of worship.
The communal religious conflicts in urban areas are different from the internal sectarian conflicts amongst Muslims, which generally occur in rural areas. The villages are characterised by the dominance of the community pattern; the homogeneity of religion, customs and traditions that become the norm; highly respected community leaders or figures; and a tendency to reject new things. Therefore, the internal sectarian issues of Muslims have become very prominent in rural areas. It is a result of the interpretation or understanding of teachings in Islam as seen in the case of Ahmadiyah, Shia and other sects.
According to Azyumardi Azra, the development of various sects or religious understandings that are different from the mainstream teachings in Islam occurs amidst socio-economic changes as a result of globalisation, which causes psychological disorientation or dislocation in the society (Azra 1999:10). Dissatisfaction with religious ideologies, movements or organisations that do not accommodate their spiritual needs also encourage the emergence of sectarianism in the Muslim community. There has also been a decline in the credibility of religious leaders amongst the people because of the influence of activities in the political world. Apart from this, one of the prominent symptoms in several movements is that their education and religious knowledge aspects are relatively minimal but they are balanced with a high religious spirit (Van Bruinessen 1999:242, 2004. It is understandable considering that low education and poverty are amongst the main problems of rural communities. and sub-district and village governments are trying to take the path of family deliberation. It is practicable because the village culture is friendly and highly respectful of religious leaders or leaders, which makes it easy for all parties in conflict to join dialogue through family friendly deliberations.
The handling of these cases tends to be different from communal religious conflicts in urban areas. Resolution through power with the security apparatus approach dominates in urban areas such as communal conflicts in the case of the church construction. As there was a mass mobilisation in the form of Muslim demonstrations, legal and secure ways were selected to resolve the case. Finally, the government carried out mediation. The case occurred because of the construction of worship places in Bandung City, Cimahi City, Bekasi City and Bogor City.
Thus, the given explanation shows that various religious conflicts in West Java cannot be separated from the sociodemographic conditions of each region. The rural sociodemographic conditions that tend to be homogeneous effect the form of religious conflict towards the internal sectarianism of Muslims. It is different from the urban socio-demographic conditions, which tend to be heterogeneous. So, communal conflicts between religions, especially Muslim-Christian dominated the religious conflicts in urban areas. This study emphasises the importance of differentiating the study of religious conflict in a society based on socio-demographic conditions, which in the discipline of sociology distinguish diametrically between rural and urban sociology (Lobao 2007;Sassen 2007).

Conclusion
Indonesia is a large country covering many ethnic groups with religious background. This diversity is spread in various regions, both in urban and rural areas. Therefore, observing the occurrence of various religious conflicts in Indonesia over the last two decades, it is important to consider not only the diversity of ethnic and religious backgrounds but also the place of residence of ethnic and religious groups in urban and rural areas. The research data from 11 regencies and cities in West Java shows that there are important differences in the characteristics of rural (kabupaten) and urban (kotamadya) areas that affect the different patterns of conflict that develop in both the regions. Regency areas generally have a pattern of internal religious conflict amongst Muslims, as seen in disputes between sects or religious understandings in Islam. Homogeneous rural social conditions affect forms of internal conflicts. They are different from the urban areas that are dominated by communal conflicts between Muslims and Christians, especially in the case of the construction of worship places. Heterogeneous urban social conditions tend to have an impact on the communal forms of conflict. These different conflict patterns also affect the way of handling the conflict. In rural areas, dialogue between religious leaders and local communities is the way to handle internal Muslim conflicts. In contrast, in urban areas, resolution through power line with the security approach of the security forces is the way to handle communal religious conflicts in dealing with cases of building worship places.