Empathy for the psychological underdog : A positive psychological approach to Luke ’ s Gospel

Taking the lead from Wisdom of Solomon 7:20, which clearly indicates that ancient authors did engage in the specialised ‘scientific’ (although contemporary) study of mental processes (διαλογισμοὺς ἀνθρώπων), it is argued that the author of Luke’s Gospel paid special attention to the alleviation of human psychological suffering. Employing an approach recently being labelled as ‘positive psychology’, attention will be paid to general affliction (e.g. Lk 4:18; 6:21, 25), old age (Lk 1:5−80; 2:25−38), grief (e.g. Lk 7:11−17) and the emphasis on mental processes in Luke’s portrayal of Jesus’ exorcisms (e.g. Lk 4:35; 6:18−19; 9:38), as well as the psychological dimension involved in other types of suffering (e.g. poverty, sickness, enmity and social ostracism). The ‘mental process’, ‘feelings’ or ‘empathy’ that motivate the alleviation of suffering (in the behaviour of Jesus and his followers) will also come into focus in the discussion of the Lucan use of the terms οἰκτίρμων (Lk 6:36), ἔλεος and σπλαγχνίζομαι (e.g. Lk 10:33, 37).


Introduction
When researchers call Luke 'den Psychologen unter den neutestamentlichen Schriftstellern' (Du Toit 1965:26 -'the psychologist amongst the New Testament authors'), it by no means implies anachronistically that Luke had all the knowledge that the past 150 years of scientific psychology gathered -not even in embryo.On the other hand, we as present-day 'scientific' researchers should not be so arrogant as to think that ancient authors did not make a conscious effort to study the different spheres of reality, or that they did not do it intelligently.Gerhard von Rad (1970:30) drew attention to the fact that conscious study of reality formed part and parcel of the late Jewish wisdom tradition.According to Von Rad (1970:30) the book of Proverbs contains wisdom for ordinary life which only forms a small part of a comprehensive quest for knowledge (τῶν ὄντων γνῶσιν = science) which even in ancient times had a much broader basis.Referring to Wisdom 7:18−20 (which dates between 100 BCE and 100 CE) he consciously employs presentday scientific terms: In den späten Buch der Weisheit Salomos werden den einmal einzelne Fächer der damals gelehrten Naturwissenschaften aufgezählt; es sind dies Astronomie, Zoologie, Dämonologie, Psychologie, Botanik und Pharmazie (SapSal 7:18ff).Es ist kaum anzunehmen, dass alle diese Wissensgebiete den Lehrern erst in den spätesten Phase zugewagchsen sind.(Von Rad 1970:30) The relevant text from Wisdom can be seen in Table 1.

On positive psychology
In what follows I hope to show that positive psychology, a psychological approach that has developed recently, provides an appropriate interpretative method of tapping into Luke's psychological insight. 1 In fact -to my mind -the Gospel in a certain sense can be regarded as providing rudimentary notions for this approach.But what is positive psychology?An 800 page (A4, double column) volume appeared in 2005 in which various authors made various contributions on relevant themes from a positive psychological perspective (Snyder & 1.In my doctoral dissertation, Suffering in Luke's Gospel, I distinguished and discussed 'psychological suffering' as one of six dimensions of suffering that Luke emphasised (Scheffler 1993:90−96).Positive psychology, as a specific psychological approach, only appeared on the scene later (Butler-Bowdon 2007:254−259;Seligman 2002Seligman , 2005:3−9;:3−9;Collin et al. 2012:200−201) and therefore this article comprises an extended refinement of the discussion in my dissertation.
Page 1 of 8 Scan this QR code with your smart phone or mobile device to read online.
Read online: Lopez 2005). 2 According to Seligman, 3 who is regarded as a major founder of this approach, (positive psychology aims at 'catalys[ing] a change in psychology from a preoccupation only with repairing the worst things in life to also building the best qualities in life' (Seligman 2005:3). 4  2.Because of its almost encyclopaedic nature, and for the purposes of this contribution, I confine myself mainly to this volume, although some other relevant psychological works will also be referred to.
3.Seligman once served a term as chair of the American Psychological Association, which testifies to the wider recognition of his work.
4.Interestingly, there also exist similar voices outside the 'school' of positive psychology who criticise 'biomania' and highlight values, relationships and the ethics of care (e.g.Allen 2013:105 referring to the work of Bracken et al. 2012:432).
The fathers of traditional psychology (e.g.Wundt, Freud, Jung 5 ) were medical practitioners working with a disease model that seeks to cure diseases by treating symptoms with special medicine-like treatment (e.g.psychoanalysis, behaviour therapy).Positive psychology focuses on the 'building of strengths' and does not deny treatment, but also develops aspects that prevent mental illness and enhance the quality of life. 6Psychology should not merely help one to cope with the afflictions of life, but to enjoy life to the full. 7 Seligman (2005) continues: The field of positive psychology at the subjective level is about positive subjective experience: well-being and satisfaction (past); flow, joy, the sensual pleasures, and happiness (present); and constructive cognitions about the future -optimism, hope and faith.At the individual level it is about positive personal traits -the capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal skill, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future-mindedness, high talent, and wisdom.At the group level it is about the civic virtues and the institutions that move people towards better citizenship: responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic.(p. 3) Seligman (2005:7) concedes that as far as traditional psychology is concerned positive psychology has affinities 5.For a brief overview of their approaches, see Collin et al. (2012:32−37;92-99;101−107).
6.The medical 'diagnostic' approach finds a classical expression in the Handbook of abnormal psychology (Eysenck 1973), whose various contributions all reflect that very approach (e.g.criminal behaviour, drug dependence, abnormal sexual behaviour, abnormalities of perception, motivation and learning etc.).In terms of the traditional approach the term 'normal psychology' could be an alternative term used, preventing the positive approach from completely denying psychological defects.

7.
Cf. also Fueter's (1986:309−319) penetrating (and relevant for positive psychology without referring to the latter) discussion and distinction between the language of science or 'diagnosis' and the language of healing.
Page 2 of 8  judgement †, ἀφέσις does not always refer to forgiveness of sins as a pure religious act, but also to 'release', 'liberation' and even 'divorce'.‡, To relate prayer to meditation is, of, course debatable.However, Luke often portrays Jesus as going to a lonely place in nature to spend time in prayer to God.Within Jewish context this most likely included meditation.The references given in the table are to these instances.§, The word for old age (γήρας) occurs only once in the New Testament (Lk 1:36), but the motif is often present and presupposed (as in the case of Simon in Lk 1:26), or expressed in a phrase by the mentioning of the years of the high age or the expression προβεβηκυῖα ἐνταῖς ἡμέραις (e.g.Anna in 1:36-37).
with the work of Allport (1961) and Maslow (1970Maslow ( , 1971 the latter distinguishing the need for positive self-fulfilment as an ultimate goal in life). 8However, as I hope will become clear, positive psychology goes beyond the fulfilment of any personal individual human need.
The various contributions in the Handbook of positive psychology reflect approximately 47 issues on which positive psychology focuses, as well as several theoretical contributions on the subject.Many of these topics, or themes, are directly present in the Gospel of Luke, and nearly all are indirectly related to the Gospel.Table 2 contains a selection of themes that receive focused attention, directly traced in the Gospel of Luke (and/or Acts) or related to it. 9  It is clear from the statistics above (column 4, Table 2) that in nearly all cases these themes feature more prominently in Luke's Gospel than in the other Gospels and Acts.Even so, it should be kept in mind that differences are to be expected between Luke's view on a particular topic and that proposed by positive psychology on the same topic.But there are surely also striking similarities.Given the status of the Lucan text (as scripture of a religion to which a third of today's world population belongs), it seems proper that the views of the Gospel could at least be accommodated in the discourse regarding a specific theme, especially since the concepts studied by positive psychology are in many instances (cf.Table 2) literally the same, a situation that did not exist in traditional psychology.
In what follows, attention will be paid to ageing and compassion (empathy and altruism included).But as already said, positive psychology addresses and does not deny negative mental states.We will therefore first turn our attention to some of these, briefly indicating the terrain, without any claim to complete treatment.Lk 4:18; 6:21, 25) In Luke's programmatic Nazareth episode (4:18) the terms αἰχμαλώτος [captive] and τεθραυσμένος [oppressed] (although being quoted from Isaiah 61) are best interpreted to refer, in view of the Capernaum episode that follows, to sickness and demon possession (Scheffler 1993:39).Despite these possible 8.For a brief overview of the approaches of Allport and Maslow, see Collin et al. (2012:138−139;306−313) and Hjelle and Ziegler (1976:171−210;249−286).To my mind Maslow's humanistic psychology is closer to positive psychology than Allport's trait theory (which focuses on individuality, but positively emphasises rationality, proactivity and heterostasis -1976:207).Maslow's fifteen features of self-fulfilment define its overlap with positive psychology: self-fulfilled persons (1) perceive reality sufficiently and tolerate uncertainty, (2) accept themselves and others for what they are, (3) are spontaneous in thought and action, ( 4) are problem-centred instead of self-centred, ( 5) have an unusual sense of humour, (6) are able to look at life objectively, (7) are highly creative, (8) are resistant to enculturation but not purposely unconventional, ( 9) are concerned with the welfare of humanity, (10) Grundmann 1974:143).The psychological suffering could have been caused by the particular forms of suffering referred to in the other beatitudes, for example poverty 10 , hunger and persecution (or by any other condition for that matter).For all kinds of suffering are in the end interrelated, and affect a person psychologically, exacerbated by the fact that human beings think and ponder about them (Wolter 2008:249).

General affliction (
In this context Luke's peculiar narration of the raising of the widow's son in Nain (recalling the raising of the widow's son by Elisha in 2 Kings 4) can also be mentioned (7:11−17).The focus is not so much on the raising itself as on the widow's grief in losing her son.It is emphatically mentioned that 'he was his mother's only son' (μονογενὴς υἱὸς τῇ μητρὶ αὐτου).Jesus' compassion towards her elicits the miracle and it is explicitly stated in verse 13: 'When the Lord saw her, he had compassion for her (ἐσπλαγχνίσθη ἐπ᾽αὐτη) and said to her, "Do not weep"' (μὴ κλαῖε).After raising the son, it is also explicitly mentioned that 'Jesus gave him to his mother' (ἔδωκεν αὐτὸν τῇ μητρὶ αὐτοῦ).Jesus' psychological engagement with the mourning mother is clear. 11  Also unique to Luke is Jesus' concern for the women who lamented him on his way to the cross, when he ironically directs their attention away from his own suffering to theirs and their children (23:28).To my mind Ellis's (1974:266) observation that the women acted from religious obligation, underplays the sincerity of their feelings on a psychological level.The same holds also true for Grundmann's (1974:429) remark that Jesus 'ist über sein Geschick erhoben' (cf.also 1974:429).

Old age as a predicament and ageing well as an opportunity
In the Handbook of positive psychology Williamson (2005:676−686) wrote an article on ageing well in which he argues that ageing need not be regarded (by elderly people or members of society) as a burden to society, even though it increases the number of older people in it.On the contrary, by adopting certain attitudes (e.g.continuation of meaningful activities 12 ) old people need not experience their age as a predicament or a disability, but even as a blessing and privilege. 13  In all probability, this optimistic attitude was not prevalent in Luke's day where the handicaps of old age took their toll.Old people feature in Luke's narrative more than they do in any of the other gospels.Although ageing is primarily a physical process, Luke's positive interest seems to be in the psychological plight of old people.
The sub-discipline of developmental psychology makes a special study of the way old people experience the ageing process 14 .The investigation of life's phases by Erikson (who expanded Freud's five life 15 stages to include the whole span of human life) seems to be relevant for Luke's emphasis on old age.To be old is one thing, to be old and childless was considered totally meaningless.Zechariah's utterance of the Benedictus as a whole (Lk 1:68−79) can, in a similar way, also be interpreted as an expression of his ego integrity.
Without going here into detail, the narration of Simeon and Anna's experiences 18 in 2:25−38 also reflects empathy with their predicament as old people.As with the case of Elizabeth and Zechariah, their predicaments are ultimately relieved with ego integrity as a consequence, as expressed in Simeon's words '[n]ow you are letting your servant go in peace as you promised; for my eyes have seen the salvation which you have made ready in the sight of the nations' (Lk 2:29−31).As far as Anna is concerned, it is explicitly mentioned that she was of great age (προβεβηκυῖα ἐν ἡμέραις πολλαῖς) '... a widow till she was eighty four'.Like Simeon, she was eagerly expecting the redemption of Jerusalem, and her giving thanks to God at Jesus' presentation amounts to ego integrity.By including these unique traditions, Luke did not merely show an interest in the ageing process, but also in the psychological alleviation of the affliction of old people.In our present-day world solving their problems in miraculous ways is surely not on the table.However, the evangelist's involvement should be shared, looking for appropriate modern ways of alleviating the psychological burdens of the aged.Luke transmits three of Mark's four exorcisms and does not add any from his Sondergut or Q.However, his enhanced psychological interest is reflected in the fact 18.For a more detailed discussion see Scheffler (1993:91).

Luke's emphasis on mental processes in his portrayal
that, in three cases of physical healing (Peter's mother in law's fever in 4:38−39, the dumb man of 11:14 and the crippled women 13:11), the sickness is ascribed to a demon, contrary to his sources).
Before paying brief attention to the exorcisms (the Capernaum demonic, the Gerasene demoniac and the epileptic boy) a comparison of his summary of the healing of the demon possessed in 6:18−19 with that of Mark (3:10−12) reveals a remarkable psychological interest (see Table 3).19.For a relevant modern treatment of the concept 'Psychische Befreiung' (psychological liberation) along with 'politische Befreiung' (political liberation), inspired by the Christ event, see Moltmann (1973:268−315).
By shortening Mark's version of the healing of the epileptic boy (Lk 9:37−43a; Mk 9:14−27), Luke retains the focus on the actual healing of the boy.As in Mark, the boy's suffering (clearly a grand mal epileptic attack, cf.Suinn 1975:391−392) is described in detail in Table 4.
However, Mark's version elaborates much more on the unbelief of the disciples and the (lack of) faith of the boy's father.If one compares Mark 6:5 with 9:23, Mark seems to see a close connection between faith and healing.Here too Luke plays down the close connection between faith and healing as he did with his creative reinterpretation of Mark's Nazareth episode in Luke 4, thereby emphasising that for Jesus there are no conditions and boundaries to God's mercy for, and compassion towards, those who suffer.
Of special significance is also Jesus' interpretation of the coming of the kingdom of God, not as an apocalyptic event (contra Mark and Matthew) but as happening here and now when psychological healing is affected: 'But if it is by the finger of God that I cast out the demons, then the kingdom of God has come to you' (Lk 11:20).This correlates perfectly with Luke 17:20−21 where the kingdom is explicitly described in psychological terms: The kingdom of God is not coming with things that can be observed; nor will they say, "Look, here it is!" or "There it is!" For, in fact, the kingdom of God is among you.(Lk 17:20-21) 20

Compassion, empathy and altruism
In the Handbook of positive psychology, Cassell (2005:434−445) wrote a chapter on compassion, whilst Batson, Ahmad, Lishner and Tsang (2005:485−498) wrote on empathy and altruism.For the purposes of our interpretation of Luke, compassion can be regarded as an exchangeable term for empathy.Batson et al. (2005:486) define empathy formally as 'an other-orientated emotional response elicited by and congruent with the perceived well-fare of someone else'.Batson et al. (2005) emphasise that true empathy is basically 20.This text caused the Irish author George Bernard Shaw to comment: 'Jesus said: "The kingdom of God is among you"ever since the Church has sought for it somewhere else.'

TABLE 3:
Comparison between the demon possessed of Mark and Luke.
They had come to hear him and to be healed of their diseases; and those who were troubled with unclean spirits were cured. 19And all in the crowd were trying to touch him, for power came out from him and healed all of them.altruistic, leads to concrete action that benefits people who are suffering, and is not done for egoistic reasons.They quote Pilavin and Charng (1990:27) who contend on the basis of several studies conducted that: There appears to be a 'paradigm shift' away from the earlier position that behaviour that appears to be altruistic must, under closer scrutiny, be revealed as reflecting egoistic motives.Rather, theory and data now being advanced are more compatible with the view that true altruism -acting with the goal of benefiting another -does exist and is a part of human nature.(Pilavin & Charng 1990:270 in Batson et al. 2005:490) In Luke's Gospel, the notion of compassion and altruistic empathy is expressed by the terms ἔλεος (Lk 1:50, 54, 58, 72, 78), οἰκτίρμων (Lk 6:36), σπλαγχνίζομαι, (7:13;10:33;15:20;Ac 1:18) and ἐπιμελεσθαι (to care -Lk 10:34−35).Luke employs three characters (Mary, Zecharaiah and Jesus) to promote it.In Mary's Magnificat (in all probability based on Hannah's Song in 1 Sm 2:1−10) it is God's mercy (ἔλεος) through the ages (1:50) that finds expression in the reversal of roles of the poor and the mighty in 1:51-53, and which would benefit Israel (1:54).Zecharaiah's Benedictus also refers to the mercy shown to Israel's ancestors (1:72), which also provides the basis for the salvation that would come from his son's follower, Jesus (1:78).
In a programmatic saying as part of the Lucan Jesus' sermon on the plain, which advocates action that benefits sufferers, Luke renders the Q-saying of 6:36 as 'be compassionate (οἰκτίρμονες), as your father is compassionate (οἰκτίρμων)', instead of the 'you must be perfect (τέλειοι) as your heavenly father is perfect (τέλειός) of Matthew 5:48.This notion of God as primarily merciful is not always consistent with (violent) images of YHWH (e.g. as a warrior, ‫ה‬ ֑ ָ ‫מ‬ ָ ‫ח‬ ‫לְ‬ ‫מִ‬ ‫יׁש‬ ֣ ִ ‫א‬ ‫֖ה‬ ‫הוָ‬ ‫יְ‬ -Ex 15:3) that can also be ascribed to the Jewish and Israelite tradition, although it is not absent in the Old Testament either (cf.Ex 34:6−7) 21 .
Luke furthermore portrays a Jesus who is motivated by the same compassion which is ascribed to God and who expects his followers to be likewise motivated.In the raising of the son of the widow of Nain, it is stated that Jesus was moved with pity for the widow (ἐσπλαγχνίσθη ἐπ᾽αὐτῇ, 7:13) and that he acted as a result of this pity or compassion, in word ('do not weep') and deed (the raising of the son). 22That he expected his followers to do likewise in a multicultural context (cf. the work on multiculturalism by Lopez et al. 2005) is nowhere more prominently communicated than in the parable of the good Samaritan (10:33−35).Contrary to the Jerusalem clergy, the Samaritan was moved with compassion (Σαμαρίτης ἐσπλαγχνίσθη) and cared immediately and extensively for the assaulted man (money-wise included).To describe the compassion and the resultant deed as one action, which emphasises their unity, Luke also uses the expression ὁ ποιήσας τὸ ἔλεος (the )נ‬ yet by no means clearing the guilty, but visiting the iniquity of the parents upon the children and the children's children, to the third and the fourth generation.'The text is clearly contradictory (not so according to Fensham 1970:229), portraying God as both merciful and forgiving, as well as punishing.The first part can be regarded as the 'default' ancient Israelite view of God, into which other (even contradictory) aspects were accommodated.Jesus' view of God, according to Luke, mainly emphasises the 'default' position, although punishment is not absent for loveless behaviour (Lk 12:48;(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30).Interesting are the diverse receptions of this text in the rest of the Old Testament where, in some cases, reference is only made to YHWH's grace -cf.Numbers 14:18 (grace and punishment); Deuteronomy 5:9 (grace and punishment); Nehemia 9:17 (only grace); Psalm 86:15 (only grace); 103:8 (anger only temporary); 145:8−9 (only grace); Jeremiah 32:18 (focus on grace); Joel 2:13 (only grace); Jon 4:2 (only grace); Nahum 1:3 (focus on punishment).
22. Jeremias (1980:158 ) speculates regarding the omission of σπλαγχνίζομαι in the healings of the leper (5:12 contra Mk 1:41) and the feeding of the 5000 (Lk 9:11 contra Mk 6:34): '… er vermied is beide Male, offenbar weil er sich an dem Affekt Jesu stiess.'However, feeling is not absent in Luke's rendering (he expressed his willingness to heal the leper) and uses ἀποδέχομαι ('welcome heartily') in the feeding episode.The fact that he retains σπλαγχνίζομαι in Luke 7:3 testifies to the fact that he actually wants to portray a Jesus with compassion and the use of it to describe the actions of the Samaritan and the forgiving father (which indirectly refers to Jesus' own actions -cf.15:1, 20) integrates too well with Luke's view.

TABLE 5:
The requirements of compassion and their presence in Jesus' parable of the good Samaritan (Lk 10:30−37).

Requirements for of compassion (Cassel 2005)
The parable of the good Samaritan 1. Compassion is experienced and/expressed with regard to the suffering of others, not the self or the family.
one who has shown mercy) to refer to the Samaritan in 10:37.The parable ends with the call that the listener should do likewise (καὶ σὺ ποίει ὁμοίως).In the following table, Cassel's (2005:n.p.) essential 'requirements for compassion' are listed and their remarkable 23 presence in the parable of the 'compassionate' Samaritan is indicated (see Table 5).
Similar expressions of compassion can be found even when the terms are absent, as for example in the account of Jesus' healings (cf.above), his concern for the lamenting women, his healing of the high priest's ear during his arrest (22:51) and his acceptance of the penitent robber who was crucified with him (23:39−43), as well as his prayer for his crucifiers (23:34).Most of these motifs are unique to Luke's Gospel.

Conclusion
In the Handbook of positive psychology contributors endeavour to reflect scientifically on virtues which, up to now, were mainly reflected upon in the realms of philosophy and religion.In line with the endeavour of present-day psychology to be an objective science, positive psychology has sought to provide precise definitions and measurements.This has been done with limited success.
To the amazement of those philosophers and theologians who, from the start, regard measurement as impossible and who regard knowledge about matters such as love, forgiveness, humility and compassion as a matter of faith, or at least personal conviction, positive psychologists have indicated that these virtues exist and are part of human nature.On the other hand positive psychologists also admit that there are aspects of these concepts that escape human measurement.For how can wisdom, humour and ethics be fully measured?It seems therefore that, besides individual reflection and meditation on these virtues, mutual discussion and reflection on them as well as experiencing them in mutual and interactive relationships, is also the way to appropriate them and simultaneously gain more profound insight into them.Surprisingly this leaves space for religion and spirituality, which as such is also consciously recognised by positive psychology (see Pargament and Mahoney's contribution on the discovery and conserving of the sacred -2005:646−659).
There is some irony in the fact that, whereas biblical scholarship is often preoccupied with technical issues like the sources of texts, as if their understanding depends on a precise reconstruction of their origin and function in ancient contexts, psychology and spirituality would engage in cultivating the treasures which exegesis often neglectsperhaps in an endeavour to gain intellectual respectability.
To my mind, positive psychology has therefore a large contribution to make in the endeavours of biblical scholars who want to engage in psychological biblical criticism.
Of course Luke, like other ancient texts, is not replete with insights on positive psychology.However, to my mind, especially Luke's Gospel can be regarded as a religious 23.Remarkable, since Cassel refers nowhere to the parable and most probably made his analysis without considering Luke's Gospel.
text which, if properly reflected upon -also with the aid of positive psychology -has much to contribute to the motivation and fostering of thoughts, virtues and feelings that make for worthwhile living, as it has indeed to some extent done through 2000 years of Christianity.

(
Jeremias 1974:104), they were not suffering in an economic or spiritual sense (the latter referring to being branded as a sinner, seeScheffler 1993:96−101).The old couple was childless, which, besides the psychological implications, was also (according to contemporary belief) regarded as divine punishment(Grundmann 1974:49).Zechariah's answer to the angel ('How should I know this?For I am an old man and my wife is advanced in years [προβεβηκυῖα ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις].'-1:18) re-emphasises their predicament.In this context, Elizabeth's pregnancy denotes an alleviation of acute suffering.Again old age is emphasised, this time by the angel who announced Jesus' birth to the younger Mary: 'Elizabeth … who was called barren … in her old age [ἐν γήρει αὐτῆς] has conceived a son' (1:36).Instead of a despairing old age, Elizabeth could therefore experience what Erikson calls 'ego integrity', and she expresses this in the words: 'The Lord has done this for me, now that it has pleased him to take away the humiliation I suffered in public' (Lk 1:25).The disgrace, ὄνειδός μου ἐν ἀνθρώποις (Lk 1:25) testifies to the shamefulness of childlessness in contemporary society, and intensifies the psychological suffering of being old.

TABLE 1 :
The translation of

TABLE 2 :
Themes considered in positive psychology and also present in Luke's Gospel.

of Jesus' exorcisms (Lk 6:18−19; 4:35; 8:26−39; 9:37−43)
Unlike Mark, Luke explicitly mentioned that the people were troubled by demons (ἐνοχλούμενοι ἀπὸ πνευμάτων ἀκαθάρτων, 6:18b).Mark focuses on the demons falling before Jesus confessing him as the son of God.The actual healing of all the people is mentioned by Luke and not by Mark (καὶ ἰᾶτο πάντας, 6:19).It seems, therefore that in Mark's view the actual healing of the demon-possessed persons, and their psychological suffering, was secondary to the fact that Jesus had authority over demons, whereas Luke has no interest in Mark's possible theological motif of the messianic secret.For him (Luke), the suffering of the psychological underdog is paramount and his view rectifies Mark's by stressing Jesus' alleviation of the suffering of all (πάντας) those who were sick and demon possessed.Luke introduces the term ἐσώθη in Luke 8:36 to underscore the deliverance of the demoniac -in modern terms, psychological liberation or healing.19After the healing, the healed boy's positive inclination towards Jesus is emphasised by the words 'sitting at Jesus' feet' (Mk 5:15 has 'sitting there') and he is also depicted as fully obeying Jesus (Lk 8:38−39, contra Mk 5:19−20).
In Luke's editing of at least two of Mark's four exorcisms his emphasis on the alleviation of psychological suffering also surfaces clearly.He made significant changes to his Marcan source to reflect Jesus' unconditional compassion for the persons who were demon possessed.Firstly, in Mark 1:26 it is stated that the unclean spirit convulsed (σπαράξαν) the Capernaum demoniac before it came out.In contrast to this, in Luke 4:36 the casting out is pictured as a less painful process: the demon threw the man in the midst of them (ῥῖψαν instead of σπαράξαν), came out of him, but did him no harm (καὶ ῥῖψαν αὐτὸν τὸ δαιμόνιον εἰς τὸ μέσον ἐξῆλθεν ἀπ᾽αὐτοῦ μηδὲν βλάψαν αὐτόν).This clearly indicates Luke's (and Jesus') empathetic concern.Second, in the exorcism of the Gerasene demoniac (Lk 8:26−39; Mk 5:1−20),

TABLE 4 :
The epileptic boy in Luke.